tive and objective combination; as, "A good man governs his passions." This kind of proposition exhibits all the syntactical combinations. See Article on the Three Syntactical Combinations.

The forms of this proposition are almost endlessly diversified. VI. The proposition intermediate between the simple and compound, or the proposition involving a participial. The dif ferent species are as follows:

1. Where the participial is a participle; as, "He answering said."

2. Where the participial is a gerund, or a participle used adverbially; as, "He came riding."

3. Where the participial is a nominative absolute; as, “The enemy advancing, he retreated."

4. Where the participial is a supine, or an infinitive with a preposition; as, "He prepared to go."

5. Where the participial is an accusative and infinitive or supine; as, "He bade him stay;" "I advised him to go."

VII. The subordinative compound or complex proposition, in which one proposition is dependent on or subordinate to the othThe different species are as follows:

er.

1. Having a substantive subordinate proposition:

a. Denoting the subject; as, "That God exists is true." b. Denoting the immediate complement; as, "We know that God exists."

c. Denoting the second complement; as, "The Bible teaches us that God is love."

2. Having an adjective subordinate proposition, answering to an adjective in the simple proposition; as, "Balbus, who had a sword, drew it.".

3. Having an adverbial subordinate proposition, denoting an object, not complementary, but supplementary to the verb of the leading proposition:

a. Expressing the place; as, "Where thou lodgest, I will lodge."

b. Expressing the time; as, "Whensoever ye will, ye may do them good."

c. Expressing the cause; as, "Because he could swear by no greater, he sware by himself."

d. Expressing the manner; as, "Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors."

e. Expressing intensity; as, "One is so near to another that no air can come between them."

VIII. The co-ordinative compound proposition, where the two propositions are co-ordinate or independent of each other, but still make but one thought. The species are as follows:

1. The copulative compound proposition, the appropriate conjunction for which is and; as, "The sun shines, and the air is pleasant."

2. The adversative compound proposition, the appropriate conjunction for which is but; as, "He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman;" yet; as, "The sun shines, yet the air is unpleasant;" or or; as, "Either the world had a Creator, or it existed by chance."

3. The causal compound proposition, the appropriate conjunction for which is for; as, "God is to be loved, for he is good;" or therefore; as, "God is good, therefore he is to be loved."

Note. When a relation of the logical or adversative ground exists between the members of the co-ordinative or subordinative compound proposition, as in some of the examples given above, then the whole compound proposition is brought under the dominion of a higher faculty of the human soul, namely, the reasoning power, and is called a period.

IX. The compound period, involving two or more simple periods: "As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not perceive it moving; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow; so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such minute steps, are only perceivable by the distance."

SPECIMENS OF SENTENCES.

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

1. Reason guides. Here we have a simple subject and a simple predicate.

2. Reason cultivated guides. Here we have a modified subject. 3. Reason cultivated with care guides. Here there is a further modification.

4. Reason cultivated with great care guides.

5. Reason cultivated with great care, for many years, guides. 6. Reason cultivated with great care, for many years, in the best circumstances, guides.

7. Reason guides man. Here the predicate is modified.

8. Reason guides man in his path. Here is farther modification.

9. Reason guides man in his path through life.

10. Reason guides man in his path through life in all his doubts and difficulties.

These sentences are Declarative and Direct.

11. Does reason guide man? This is Interrogative and Indirect.

12. How admirable is reason as a guide compared with instinct! This is Exclamatory and Indirect.

13. Let reason guide you. This is Imperative and Indirect. In a direct sentence, the subject comes before the verb; in an indirect sentence, the subject comes after the verb.

14. What is the use of it? is the first question asked in England by almost every body about almost every thing. This is a simple sentence, in which the question is the subject, which is itself a sentence.

1. Man proposes and God disposes. This is a Copulative Coordinate sentence.

2. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. This is an Adversative Co-ordinate sentence.

3. He neither was brave nor was he generous. This is a Disjunctive Co-ordinate sentence.

4. He was always punctual in his payments, and therefore he was in good credit. This is a Causal Co-ordinate sentence. See § 537.

In those compound sentences which are sometimes called complex, there is always a subordinate sentence. See § 538.

5. It is a law of nature that water should congeal by cold. The second sentence is a Substantive sentence. See § 538. 6. The man who is prudent-looks to the future. The sentence who is prudent is an Adjective sentence. See § 538.

7. When he has finished his lesson-he goes out to play. The first is an Adverbial sentence relating to time. See § 538.

8. I can not tell-where they have laid him. The last is an Adverbial sentence relating to place. See § 538.

9. He succeeds-as his father did before him. The last is an Adverbial sentence relating to manner.

us.

10. The stars appear small-because they are distant from The last is an Adverbial sentence relating to manner.

11. They remained where they have been residing the last five years. This contains an adverbial sentence.

12. Political economists tell us that self-love is the bond of society. This contains a Substantive sentence.

13.

Oh! for a muse of fire that would ascend

The highest heaven of invention!

This is an Exclamatory sentence.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS.

§ 540. A GRAMMATICAL FORM is equivalent to another grammatical form when the first means the same, or nearly the same, as the second.

What is called a command of language is little else than a practical acquaintance with grammatical equivalents. The tasteful English scholar is he who habitually uses the better expression of two equivalents upon perceived grounds of preference. He understands both the points of agreement and the points of difference between two expressions.

EXAMPLES OF

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS.

§ 541. 1. He reported that the king was dead. a sentence.

the death of the king = He reported Here a substantive is expanded into

2. The scholars who were educated by him=The scholars educated by him. Here a proposition is abridged into an adjective.

3. I saw him before the time when you came=I saw him before you came. Here a preposition, an article, a noun, and an adverb, are abridged into an adverb.

4. When the troops had come over the river, they marched directly into the fort Having come over the river, the troops marched directly into the fort. Here a sentence is abridged into a participle.

5. He told the troops that they must not fire upon the enemy

S s

upon

the

Here enemy.

a sen

He told the troops not to fire tence is abridged into an infinitive.

6. He is a man of learning = He is a learned man= He is not unlearned.

=

7. Riding on horseback is healthful To ride on horseback is healthful Horseback riding is healthful.

8. When the troops approached, they discharged their mus kets The troops approached and discharged their muskets. Here the subordinate construction is changed to the co-ordinate. 9. He gave up the undertaking=He relinquished the undertaking.

10. Having conquered his enemies, he applied himself to the arts of peace After conquering his enemies, he applied himself to the arts of peace. These are specimens.

EXERCISES.

§ 542. Find equivalents for the following:

1. He examined me closer than my judge had done=

2. Were I to express my opinion fully=

3. Henry declared that it was John=

4. A gentleman who was coming here yesterday=
5. He arrived in the city and waited on the mayor=

TRANSLATION.

§ 543. Equivalents are very numerous in the English language. The learner will find it greatly for his advantage to write out phrases and sentences from books, and then write opposite to them, as above, equivalent expressions. Indeed, passages of considerable length might thus be profitably translated from one set of expressions to another, as in the following, from ISAAC TAYLOR, on Home Education:

"It was a brilliant night. Beneath a dark and cloudless vault, the snowy mantle of the mountain shone resplendent with the beams of a full Italian moon. The guides lay buried in the deepest sleep. Thus, in the midnight hour, at the

"The night was resplendent. The mountain, clad in spotless white, glistened against the deep blue of the sky in the light of the moon, then at the full, and such as it is seen in Italy. The guides were in the profoundest slumber; and I