war. not so immediate, are scarcely less tion of the approaching abolition of certain, or less unfavourable. It inevitably introduces pride, arrogance, high and unjust assumptions, inordinate and ambitious views, systems of rapacity against surrounding states, and a contempt for all those internal resources and useful pursuits, on which the real prosperity of a state essentially depends. In proportion to the extent of its territory abroad, is the relaxation of its political system at home. The influence of a haughty soldiery overpowers all civil authority, till at length the mighty fabric, the work of ages, falls into ruins, and the very seat and centre of empire becomes an easy conquest to some of those despised and distant nations, which, so far from inspiring terror, were considered as almost below contempt. It is under circumstances of this nature, that the human race seems to fall from its proud pre-eminence, and to exhibit itself under a servile, base, and degrading aspect. Sickening, at length, at the horrors of war; suffering under continual calamities and privations, terrified at reiterated instances of unsparing cruelties, alarmed at the uncertainty of life and the insecurity of property, the inhabitants of once flourishing states and empires, sink, an easy and unresisting prey, under the dominion of any ruler, who may be likely to afford them an asylum from evils which they can no longer bear. In the mean time, all the institutions of polished life, all the light of intellect and elevation of character, all love of independence and sympathy with others, are absorbed and lost in the mean and selfish regard to immediate preservation and individual security. Then comes the universal gloom of ignorance, and superstition, sweeping, like an unhealthy fog, over the nations of the earth; whilst century after century rolling on in almost undistinguished succession, only serves to attest the debasement of the human race. The deplorable condition of Europe, during the long period of a thousand years, may surely be admitted as a sufficient evidence of the fact. On the other hand, the wonderful improvements, both intellectual and political, as well as religious, introduced within the last century, may be adverted to as an infallible indica That in the continual fluctuations and ultimate improvement of human affairs, a period will arrive, when the civilized world will unite in one great effort for the prevention of war, may, nevertheless, be considered certain. Even at present, indications appear of a disposition to that effect, on the result of which it would be premature to judge; but we cannot avoid perceiving, that whenever that moment arrives, it will be the crisis of the human race, the charter of its liberty, peace, and happiness-or the sentence that consigns it over to ignorance, bondage, and disgrace. The general concerns of the earth will then be agitated-melted down into one common mass, to rise in hateful deformity, or to receive a new and more beautiful impression, -"the genius and the mortal instruments Are then in motion; and the state of man, Like to a little kingdom, suffers then The nature of an insurrection." Nor must it be presumed that the struggle will be of easy decision. Whenever these momentous decisions arise, the spirits hostile to their species are always at work, eager to gratify their ambitious, mercenary, or unholy aims, and in the operative moment, to convert the healthful mass to poison. If, on other occasions, their efforts have been attended with too much success, is it not to be feared that, at this most important moment, they will endeavour to establish their power upon a permanent foundation?-and under the pretext of suggesting to the sovereigns of the civi lized world, the idea of a general and uninterrupted pacification, will promote a league for the security of the individual authority of each against the natural rights, established privileges, and just claims, of their people? If such an event were possible, then indeed would the degradation of the human race be complete; and the world itself would only be a mighty prison, of which every inhabitant must wear a chain, the weight of which must be according to the will of his keeper. But such a result is impossible. The friends of mankind look forward to brighter prospects. They fear not to enter into the contest with their opponents, and anticipate their final triumph. They know that the period for such apprehensions is past. That knowledge has carried her torch into the remotest recesses of the earth,that she has thrown her beams over the thrones of sovereigns, and called to her aid those in whom she can confide. Under her influence, every attempt to infringe on the common rights of mankind, or to suppress the independence of nations, could meet only with abhorrence, as the signal for new resistance, new excesses, and new crimes. days. The air in the receiver will become gradually absorbed by the compound, till only about threefourths remain of its original bulk. The completion of the process may be readily ascertained by the ascent of the water into the receiver. Upon examination, the residue will be found to be nitrogen gas. Procure a common glass vial, with a good cork, through which fasten a small wire; and fix a small piece of wax taper to the end of the wire. Light the taper, and introduce it into the vial. The taper will burn for some time, but will at length be extinguished; the taper is to be thus re the vial till all the oxygen of the air contained in the vial is consumed ; which will be known by the lighted taper being immediately extinguished on coming into contact with the air in the vial. The vial may now be inverted with its neck into the water, in pneumato-chemical, till the nitrogen gas is wanted for experiment. It will then be perceived that the family of an individual is sacred,that in matters of external arrange-peatedly lighted, and introduced into ment it acts by its chief, whose authority is to be decided by those whom he represents, and not by those with whom he is to deliberate and contend, -that for others to interfere in his domestic or internal concerns, either to extend his authority, or to excite resistance in those, who, by nature or by law, are subjected to him, is equally criminal, and that to suppose the peace of the world can be established on any other foundation than the perfect independence of separate states, is to betray a degree of ignorance below contempt. A PEACEMAKER. CHEMICAL ESSAYS. Essay 2d.-Nitrogen Gas. (Continued from col. 28.) The term nitrogen is derived from the Greek language, and signifies the generator of nitre. Nitrogen gas, called also mephitic air, phlogisticated air, and azotic gas, was first discovered by Dr. Rutherford, in 1772. Nitrogen gas may be obtained by various means; but I shall, in this place, confine myself to the enumeration of a few only.-1st. It may be procured by separating the oxygen from a portion of atmospheric air, in the following manner. Make into a paste, with water, a quantity of either the sulphurat of iron, or potass; and place the mixture in a shallow vessel, over water, raised above the fluid by means of a small stand; invert over it a large bell glass, jar, or other suitable receiver, and allow the whole to remain in this state for two or three Very pure nitrogen gas may be obtained by treating fresh animal substances with nitric acid. Cut muscular flesh into small pieces, introduce them into an earthenware or common glass retort, and pour very much diluted nitric acid upon them; apply a gentle heat, and collect the gas over water. In like manner this gas may be obtained from the crassamentum of the blood, and also from the serum, and white of eggs. Nitrogen gas, like common air, is invisible, colourless, and elastic; capable of indefinite expansion and compression. Its specific gravity, as determined by Mr. Kerwan, is 120°, though Mr. Lavoisier makes it only 115°. According to Mr. Kerwan's analysis, it is, therefore, to atmospheric air, as 985 to 1000. It is not absorbable of water. It is fatal to animal life; this may be proved by immersing a bird, mouse, or other small animal, into a vessel of this fluid. Life will become immediately extinct. It does not maintain combustion, for if a lighted taper, or other combustible body, be plunged into a vessel of this gas, it will be immediately extinguished. It constitutes about 78 parts in every 100 measures of atmospheric air. We may convince ourselves of this fact by mixing together three parts of nitrogen gas, and one part of oxygen | besides these two gases, atmospheric gas. The mixture will be found to exhibit all the properties of common air; it will support combustion and animal life in an equality with atmospheric air. It enters into the composition of all animal substances. It is not fatal to vegetable life, for plants thrive and even flourish in it. When simply mixed with hydrogen gas, it undergoes no perceptible change, but under certain circumstances it combines with hydrogen, and constitutes the well-known compound called volatile alkali, or ammonia. United with oxygen in different proportions, it forms, besides atmospheric air, the gaseous oxyde of nitrogen, or nitrous oxyde, nitrous gas, and nitric acid. Atmospheric air consists of about 3 parts of nitrogen and 1 of oxygen. Nitrous oxyde consists of nitrogen, 2 parts; oxygen, 1 part. Nitrous gas consists of nitrogen, 1 part; oxygen 3 parts. Nitric acid, or aquafortis, consists of nitrogen, 1 part; oxygen, 4 parts. The production of nitric acid by a combination of these two gases, will be evident from the following experiment, mentioned by several writers on chemistry: Procure a glass tube, of about onesixth part of an inch in diameter; close one end of the tube with a cork, through which passes a small wire, both ends of which are furnished with a metal ball. The tube is now to be filled with mercury, and its open end immersed in that fluid. As much of a mixture composed of 87 parts of oxygen gas, and 13 parts of nitrogen gas, as will fill three inches, are to be introduced into the glass tube, and a number of electric explosions are to be made through the mixture, by means of the wire in the cork. The mixture will gradually become diminished, and in its place a quantity of nitric acid will be found. This gas is capable of dissolving a small quantity of carbon. It also dissolves small quantities of sulphur and phosphorus; with the former producing a very fetid gas, called sulphureted nitrogen gas, with the latter phosphureted nitrogen gas. air also contains a small portion of carbonic acid gas, generally estimated at 1 in 100, but Mr. Dalton has shewn that it does not constitute above 1 in 1000. Seeing, then, that the bulk of atmospheric air is composed of two distinct gases, of such opposite qualities, and that nitrogen gas forms threefourths of the whole, perhaps it may be asked, for what useful purpose can such a vast bulk of nitrogen gas serve, which, in a separate state, is incapable of either supporting combustion, or animal life?-A moment's consideration will be sufficient to convince us, that all things have been so formed and arranged as was most likely to promote the happiness of man; and perhaps nothing is better calculated to awaken us to a sense of the unerring wisdom of the divine mind, than the study of chemistry; a science which, to be admired, requires only to be known. Had a larger quantity of oxygen gas entered into the composition of atmospheric air, it is true it would have proved more stimulant, and we should have enjoyed a more free respiration; consequently, the circulation of blood would have been greatly accelerated, but the whole system of vessels must have been inevitably destroyed by over excitement; and combustion, now a regular and beautiful process, have become a most insurmountable evil, insomuch, as the united efforts of mankind would prove abortive in putting the least stop to the destructive ravages of bodies in a state of combustion. Before we close this paper, perhaps it will be necessary to give the origin and signification of the term gas. Gas, or gaz, is derived from the German word Gascht:-an eruption of wind. It was first introduced into chemistry by Van Helmont. By this word, chemists denote a permanently elastic aëriform fluid, distinguishable from vapour in not being condensible by the greatest degree of cold with which we are acquainted. Gases are solid substances, rendered perma gen gas does not exist in animals, but nitrogen in a solid state, which is converted into gas by addition of caloric, or the matter of heat. We have now shewn that atmosphe-nently aëriform by caloric; thus nitroric air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen gas, and have also mentioned, the specific gravity of each of these gases, as determined by some of our most accurate experimentalists; but (To be continued.) A LECTURE ON GEOLOGY, Read to the Philosophical Society, at *** on Friday, October 5th, 1821.-By Deluvianus. "Nullius in Verba Magistri." know of that sublime matter may be expressed in a few words: In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth,-like Moliere's Medecin malgre lui (who, affirming that the heart was on the right side, was reminded that it was commonly thought THE ancients understood by cosmo- to be on the left) he will exclaim, “Ah! gony, the creation of the whole mate- oui, c'etoit ainsi autrefois, mais aurial universe. But geology is a term jourdhui nous avons change tout cela❞ which is of course restricted to that-Why, yes, formerly indeed it was knowledge which we possess of the thought so, but we have of late changformation of that globe "which we ed all that.† inherit," and on which we subsist.It is obvious, that we cannot pretend to observe or draw any accurate analogy of the nature of the internal and subterranean parts of our earth; for no miner has succeeded in descending into the bowels of the earth more than a 30,000th part of its diameter; and if the earth be represented by an orange as to its form, we cannot be said to have penetrated below its rind.* Geology, therefore, cannot promise more than an investigation of the former and present state of the crust, or surface of the earth. But we whose hearts are, we trust, in a better sense, on the right side, shall not venture to assail the most authentic and venerated truths, for the sake of maintaining a few dashing and sparkling hypotheses, which at best are founded on a dark and abstruse induction, on vague and uncertain analogies, without those connecting links which are essentially necessary to give them the force of facts, and the authority of truths. Let a single instance of the futility and absurdity of such sweeping speculations be a caution to us of theorizing from a few straggling and unconnected facts. To use an expression of Lord Verulam's, it is as absurd as the attempt to build a ship, without more materials than the rowing pins of a boat.‡ What were the physical causes which gave the first impulse to material atoms, and coerced them from an heterogeneous and chaotic mass, into those interesting forms which the earth presents, we know nothing, absolutely nothing more than that there Mr. Brydone, a gentleman of reis a creation-at once sublime and spectability, made a statement that beautiful! But, whether these form- seemed to cast into shadow the accreations, which deeply excite our curi- dited belief, that the world was only osity, were called into existence by a few thousand years old :- He states the omnipotent fiat, independently of that, strata of lava requires several those laws and principles which now hundred years to be mellowed and regulate material particles; or owe softened into vegetative soil. And their being to the affinities and kindred hence, from this bold and suppositious attractions, to the curdling and intes- datum, he proceeds to apply the strata tine workings of substances obedient of lava ejected from some volcanoes, to the natural laws which now affect as chronometers of the antiquity of them; is a matter too high, too lofty, the globe. But most unfortunately for human scrutiny. At least, in the for this brilliant hypothesis, the city, infancy of geological science, too of Pompeii, which was engulphed by much care cannot be taken, lest, in an eruption from Vesuvius, in the the wantonness of unlicensed conjec-year 79 of the Christian Æra, is coture, we invade, with hostile step, those sacred and hallowed inclosures, which, unlike these extravagant and prophane speculations, are entrenched and fortified by a barrier of divine and unerring truth. Talk to one of your geological and geognostical cognoscenti on the subject of creation, and tell him all we vered by such a number of strata, as On swelling columns heav'd, the pride of art! an inch around, With blind presumption bold, should dare to Has swept at once the unbounded scheme of St. Pierre observes, that on applying himself to be the historian of nature, so lacking were his abilities, so scanty his stores, that he compared himself to a child who had made a hole in the sand with a shell, as a reservoir for the waters of the ocean.* The operations of nature are vast and magnificent: the whole is too mighty for the human intellect; but we may be permitted to admire, to examine parts, rather to follow in her footsteps, than rudely to approach her temple. The study of Geology may be turned to great practical advantage, for minerals have always a certain relative position and connection in the earth.† Hence certain substances indicate proximity of others, which may be of immense use to those, whose estates abound in metallic veins; and this knowledge may also save fruitless, laborious, and expensive search, when it appears from the geological information presented by the rocks and strata, their expectations could not be realized. well understood, I propose to premise an explanation of some of the more important terms, and which are more frequently used. Some peculiar words are absolutely necessary,to avoid much tedious circumlocution. Primitive Rocks.-Those formed prior to men and animals. Transition. Those formed during the transit from the chaotic to the habitable state. Floetz.-Those having horizontal or flat strata. Alluvial formations. As the term suggests, from fragments worn down by attrition. Debris or Detribus.-The ruin, or wreck of rocks. Exuvia Reliquiæ. The remains of organized beings, as shell-fish, found in transition, floetz, and alluvial. Strata.-Layers; broad extended tabular masses. Zoophytes. Organization, semi animal, semi-vegetable. We shall begin by enumerating the varieties of rocks and mountainous elevations.-They are divided into, primitive, or those which had existence prior to the creation of animals Lord Bacon's maxim, "knowledge and vegetables; which fact is supportis power," is applicable to this sub-ed by their being destitute of organic ject; for, says the late President of the Board of Agriculture, "a knowledge of our subterranean wealth, would be the means of furnishing greater sources of opulence to the country, than the acquisition of the mines of Mexico or Peru." The form of the earth seems, like that of other planets, to be affected by revolving on its own axis, which enlarged its diameter at the equator. One would have supposed that if this motion had been imparted when the planet was in a state of fusion, as some say, mountain ranges far more lofty and extensive than those of the southern hemisphere, would have resulted from the exertion of the centrifugal forces, ere the earth had become solidified. There will necessarily be many terms made use of in the following brief and elementary paper on Geology, which have a restricted and technical meaning. To avoid perplexity, and to facilitate my being *L'etudes de la nature. + Encycl. Britan. No. 38.-VOL. IV. remains. 2d. Into transition rocks; those whose formation took place when the earth was in transitû from its chaotic to its habitable state. 3d. Secondary, stratified, or floetz rocks; those which have a flat or horizontal direction. 4th. Volcanic rocks. Alluvial, viz. those which swell up from the destruction of other rocks, by the action of tempests, currents, &c. 5th. We will consider them in detail.PRIMITIVE, are-Granite; Gneiss ; Micaceous Schistus; Argillaceous Ditto; Primitive Limestone; Primitive Trap; Serpentine; Porphyry ; Srenite; Topaz Rock; Quartz Rock; Primitive Flinty Slate; Primitive Gypsum; White Stone. |