5. It is useful in a ship or boat, either when running or lying to or in wearing.

6. No experiences are related of its use when hoisting a boat at sea or in a seaway, but it is highly probable that much time would be saved and injury to the boat avoided by its use on such occasions.

7. In cold water the oil, being thickened by the lower temperature and not being able to spread freely, will have its effect much reduced. This will vary with the description of oil used.

8. For a ship at sea the best method of application appears to be to hang over the side, in such a manner as to be in the water, small canvas bags, capable of holding from 1 to 2 gallons of oil, the bags being pricked with a sail needle to facilitate leakage of the oil. The oil is also frequently distributed from canvas bags or oakum inserted in the closet bowls. The positions of these bags should vary with the circumstances. Running before the wind, they should be hung on either bow; that is, from the cathead and allowed to tow in the water. With the wind on the quarter the effect seems to be less than in any other position, as the oil goes astern while the waves come up on the quarter. Lying to, the weather bow and another position farther aft seem the best places from which to hang the bags, using sufficient line to permit them to draw to windward while the ship drifts.

9. Crossing a bar with a flood tide, to pour oil overboard and allow it to float in ahead of the boat, which would follow with a bag towing astern, will appear to be the best plan. As before remarked, under these circumstances the effect can not be so much trusted. On a bar with the ebb tide running it would seem to be useless to try oil for the purpose of entering.

10. For boarding a wreck it is recommended to pour oil overboard to windward of her before going alongside. The effect in this case must greatly depend upon the set of the current and the circumstances of the depth of water.

11. For a boat riding in bad weather from a sea anchor it is recommended to fasten the bag to an endless line rove through a block on the sea anchor, by which means the oil can be diffused well ahead of the boat and the bag readily hauled on board for refilling if necessary.

USE OF SOUNDING TUBES

Although of undoubted value as a navigational instrument, the sounding tube is subject to certain defects which, operating singly or in combinations, may give results so misleading as to seriously endanger vessels whose safety is entirely dependent upon an accurate knowledge of the depths. Efforts have been made from time to time by the Coast and Geodetic Survey to utilize various commercial tubes for surveying operations, but the results obtained have not been satisfactory. A tube designed by the bureau, however, has been tested extensively by field parties and, as it gives results exceeding in accuracy any other type of tube, has been adopted for survey work. Even with this tube great care is necessary in order to obtain satisfactory results. There are various types of tubes in common use which are too well known to require detailed description here. They are all based on the general principle that air is elastic and can be compressed, and that if a column of air in a tube be lowered into the water in such a way that the air can not escape, yet at the same time the pressure of the water can be transmitted to it, the amount by which the air is compressed furnishes a measure of the depth to which it was lowered. Theoretically this principle is sound, but when we come to apply the theory to actual practice certain elements enter which results in errors in the depth determination. Actual experiments show that errors of 10 to 12 per cent are not uncommon, and that considerably greater errors may occur. It is important to note that the amount of these errors depends on the depth-the greater the depth the greater the numerical value of the error.

These errors are due chiefly to uneven bore of tube, variation of barometric pressure from normal, difference in temperature of air and water, uneven thickness of caps used to close one end of the tube, leakage of water, accumulated salt in the tube, and leakage or failure of gaskets and valves used in the construction of some types of tube.

care.

In order to avoid serious errors tubes should therefore be used with greatest A type that can be used more than once should be adopted, and the tubes 89926-30-19

to be used for sounding to make a landfall should be tested beforehand by stopping for an up-and-down cast, sending them down on the sounding wire to any desired depth, and comparing their readings with the actual depth to which they were submerged. Additional tests of this nature from time to time during the sounding operations are also valuable. Special care should be taken to prevent leakage by making sure that the cap fits tightly or that the valve and gaskets are water-tight and are working properly. In using the valve type of tube it is very important to make sure that the tube does not submerge after it once clears the water.

INSTRUCTIONS TO MARINERS IN CASE OF SHIPWRECK, AS PUBLISHED BY THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

GENERAL INFORMATION

Life-saving stations and houses of refuge are located upon the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards of the United States, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Lake coasts. All stations on the Atlantic coast are manned throughout the year by crews of experienced surfmen; upon the Lake coasts the stations are manned from the opening until the close of navigation, with the exception of the one on Beaver Island, Lake Michigan, which depends on a volunteer crew; and upon the Pacific coast they are open and manned throughout the year.

All life-saving stations are fully supplied with boats, wreck guns, beach apparatus, restoratives, clothing provided by the Women's National Relief Association for the shipwrecked requiring it, etc.

Houses of refuge are supplied with boats, provisions, and restoratives, but not manned by crews; a keeper, however, resides in each, who is required to make extended excursions along the coast after every storm, with a view of ascertaining if any shipwreck has occurred and finding and succoring any persons that may have been cast ashore.

Houses of refuge are located exclusively upon the Florida coast, where the requirements of relief are widely different from those of any other portion of the seaboard.

The life-saving stations are provided with the International Code of Signals, and vessels can, by opening communication, be reported; or obtain the latitude or longitude of the station, where determined; or information as to the weather probabilities in most cases; or, where facilities for the transmission of messages by telephone or telegraph are available, requests for a tug or Coast Guard cutter will be received and promptly forwarded.

All services are performed by the life-saving crews without other compensation than their wages from the Government.

Destitute seafarers are provided with food and lodging at the nearest station by the Government as long as necessarily detained by the circumstances of shipwreck and, if needed, with clothing provided by the Women's National Relief Association.

The station crews patrol the beach from 2 to 4 miles each side of their stations between sunset and sunrise, and if the weather is foggy the patrol is continued through the day. A continuous lookout is also maintained at every station night and day.

Each patrolman carries Coston signals. Upon discovering a vessel standing into danger he ignites one of these, which emits a brilliant red flame of about two minutes' duration, to warn her off, or, should the vessel be ashore, to let her crew know that they are discovered and assistance is at hand.

If the vessel is not discovered by the patrol immediately after striking, rockets, flare-up lights, or other recognized signals of distress should be used. If the weather be foggy, some recognized sound signal should be made to attract attention, as the patrolman may be some distance away at the other end of his beat.

Masters are particularly cautioned, if they should be driven ashore anywhere in the neighborhood of the stations, to remain on board until assistance arrives, and under no circumstances should they attempt to land through the surf in their own boats until the last hope of assistance from the shore has vanished. Often when comparatively smooth at sea a dangerous surf is running which is not perceptible 400 yards offshore, and the surf when viewed from a vessel never appears as dangerous as it is. Many lives have been lost unnecessarily

by the crews of stranded vessels being thus deceived and attempting to land in the ship's boats.

The difficulties of rescue by operations from the shore are greatly increased in cases where the anchors are let go after entering the breakers, as is frequently done, and the chances of saving life correspondingly lessened.

RESCUE WITH THE LIFEBOAT OR SURFBOAT

The patrolman, after discovering your vessel ashore and burning a Coston signal, hastens to his station or the telephone for assistance. If the use of a boat is practicable, either the large lifeboat is launched from its ways in the station and proceeds to the wreck by water or the lighter surfboat is hauled overland to a point opposite the wreck and launched, as circumstances may require.

Upon the boat reaching your vessel the directions and orders of the keeper (who always commands and steers the boat) should be implicitly obeyed. Any headlong rushing and crowding should be prevented, and the captain of the vessel should remain on board, to preserve order until every other person has left.

Women, children, helpless persons, and passengers should be passed into the boat first.

Goods or baggage will positively not be taken into the boat until all are landed. If any be passed in against the keeper's remonstrance, he is fully authorized to throw the same overboard.

RESCUE WITH THE BREECHES BUOY OR LIFE CAR

Should it be inexpedient to use either the lifeboat or surfboat, recourse will be had to the wreck gun and beach apparatus for the rescue by the breeches buoy or the life car.

A shot with a small line attached will be fired across your vessel. Get hold of the line as soon as possible and haul on board until you get a tailblock with a whip or endless line rove through it. The tailblock should be hauled on board as quickly as possible to prevent the whip drifting off with the set or fouling with wreckage, etc. Therefore if you have been driven into the rigging, where but one or two men can work to advantage, cut the shot line, and run it through some available block, such as the throat or peak-halyards block, or any block which will afford a clear lead, or even between the ratlines, that as many as possible may assist in hauling.

Attached to the tailblock will be a tally board with the following directions in English on one side and French on the other:

66

Make the tail of the block fast to the lower mast, well up. If the masts are gone, then to the best place you can find. Cast off shot line, see that the rope in the block runs free, and show signal to the shore."

The above instruction being complied with, the result will be as shown in Figure 1.

As soon as your signal is seen a 3-inch hawser will be bent onto the whip and hauled off to your ship by the life-saving crew.

If circumstances permit, you can assist the life-saving crew by manning that part of the whip to which the hawser is bent and hauling with them.

When the end of the hawser is got on board, a tally board will be found attached, bearing the following directions in English on one side and French on the other:

"Make this hawser fast about 2 feet above the tailblock, see all clear and that the rope in the block runs free, and show signal to the shore."

These instructions being obeyed, the result will be as shown in Figure 2. Take particular care that there are no turns of the whip line round the hawser. To prevent this, take the end of the hawser up between the parts of the whip before making it fast.

When the hawser is made fast, the whip cast off from the hawser, and your signal seen by the life-saving crew, they will haul the hawser taut and by means of the whip will haul off to your vessel a breeches buoy suspended from a traveler block, or a life car, from rings running on the hawser.

Figure 3, below, represents the apparatus rigged, with the breeches buoy hauled off to the ship.

If the breeches buoy be sent, let one man immediately get into it, thrusting his legs through the breeches. If the life car, remove the hatch, place as many

persons therein as it will hold (four to six), and secure the hatch on the outside by the hatch bar and hook, signal as before, and the buoy or car will be hauled ashore. This will be repeated until all are landed. On the last trip of the life car the hatch must be secured by the inside hatch bar.

In many instances two men can be landed in the breeches buoy at the same time by each putting a leg through a leg of the breeches and holding onto the lifts of the buoy.

Children, when brought ashore by the buoy, should be in the arms of older persons or securely lashed to the buoy. Women and children should be landed first.

Figure 1.

In signaling as directed in the foregoing instructions, if in the daytime, let one man separate himself from the rest and swing his hat, a handkerchief, or his hand; if at night, the showing of a light and concealing it once or twice will be understood; and like signals will be made from the shore. (See also, "Signals," on p. 285.)

Circumstances may arise, owing to the strength of the current or set or the danger of the wreck breaking up immediately, when it would be impossible to

Figure 2.

send off the hawser. In such a case a breeches buoy or life car will be hauled off instead by the whip or sent off to you by the shot line, and you will be hauled ashore through the surf.

If your vessel is stranded during the night and discovered by the patrolmanwhich you will know by his burning a brilliant red light-keep a sharp lookout for signs of the arrival of the life-saving crew abreast of your vessel.

From one to four hours may intervene between the burning of the light and their arrival, as the patrolman may have to return to his station, perhaps 3 or 4 miles distant, and the life-saving crew draw the apparatus or surfboat through the sand or over bad roads to where your vessel is stranded.

Lights on the beach will indicate their arrival, and the sound of cannon firing from the shore may be taken as evidence that a line has been fired across your vessel. Therefore, upon hearing the cannon, make strict search aloft, fore and aft, for the shot line, for it is almost certain to be there. Though the movements of the life-saving crew may not be perceptible to you, owing to the darkness, your vessel will be a good mark for the men experienced in the use of the wreck gun, and the first shot seldom fails.

IMPORTANT

Remain by the wreck until assistance arrives from the shore, or as long as possible. If driven aloft, the inshore mast is the safest.

If not discovered immediately by the patrol, burn rockets, flare-up, or other lights, or if the weather be foggy, fire guns or make other sound signals.

Make the shot line fast on deck or to the rigging to prevent its being washed into the sea and possibly fouling the gear.

Take particular care that there are no turns of the whip line round the hawser before making the hawser fast.

Send the women, children, helpless persons, and passengers ashore first.

6

Figure 3.

Make yourself thoroughly familiar with these instructions, and remember that on your coolness and strict attention to them will greatly depend the chances of success in bringing you and your people safely to land.

WRECK SIGNALS

The following signals, approved by the International Marine Conference convened at Washington in October, 1889, have been adopted by the Coast Guard Service and will be used and recognized by the officers and employees as occasion may require:

"Upon the discovery of a wreck by night, the life-saving force will burn a red pyrotechnic light or a red rocket to signify, 'You are seen; assistance will be given as soon as possible.'

"A red flag waved on shore by day, or a red light, red rocket, or red Roman candle displayed by night, will signify Haul away.'

6

"A white flag waved on shore by day, or a white light slowly swung back and forth, or a white rocket, or white Roman candle fired by night will signify, Slack away.'

"Two flags, a white and red, waved at the same time on shore by day, or two lights, a white and a red, slowly swung at the same time, or a blue pyrotechnic light burned by night, will signify, 'Do not attempt to land in your own boats; it is impossible.'

"A man on shore beckoning by day, or two torches burning near together by night, will signify, 'This is the best place to land.'

"Any of these signals may be answered from the vessel as follows: In the daytime, waving a flag, a handkerchief, a hat, or even the hand; at night, by