francs. In Paris, there are 30,000 protestants, and in France upwards of 2,000,000. They have 96 consistories, 438 churches, and 305 pastors, paid by government. The Protestant church costs the government annually 676,000

francs.

The marriages are contracted early, and among the higher classes too often

re-elected. Of these nuns, the greater part are cloistered, but there are some lay-sisters, and numerous novices.

Though there are many of their number belonging to the oldest families in France, and some of a much lower rank, there are no distinctions of that nature among them. By turns they make the beds, sweep the floors, and attend upon the others at table.

Nothing is more deserving of attention than the hospitals which form part of the building. They consist of two large and airy apartments; the one destined for the reception of men, the other for that of women. There are a hundred beds in each, and the scrupulous neatness and cleanliness which reigns throughout; the kindness with which the nuns talk to the invalids; the pleasure which their visit seems to afford to these poor people; and the respect and gratitude with which they are regarded; cannot fail to impress the stranger with a favorable idea of the establishment.

Two small laboratories are attached to these rooms; in each of which a nun is in constant attendance, to mix up medicines, and have in readiness all that may be wanted for the invalids. They are very skilful both in surgery and medicine; and dress the wounds of their patients with their own hands, watch by them all night, and spare neither trouble nor fatigue in their service. Persons with malignant diseases, such as small pox or typhus fever are not admitted, on account of the pensionnaires who would thus be exposed to infection.

The dormitory for the pensionnaires is a noble apartment, a hundred feet in length, having two long ranges of small beds, with curtains as white as snow. A large lamp hangs from the roof, and is kept burning all night. Two nuns sleep in the apartment, to take charge of the boarders.

The other nuns sleep in separate cells, small rooms with no other furniture than a bed, a chair, a crucifix, and a few prints of saints or Madonnas. A handsome chapel belongs to the convent, where the Bishop of Bayeux oficiates upon great occasions. The bours of prayer are numerous. At twelve o'clock, when the augelus is rung, they meet in the chapel; also in the afternoon, for vespers. At all hours of the day some of the nuns may be seen in the chapel, kneeling on the floor, like motionless figures of stone, muttering their prayers before the altar. A confessor belongs to the convent, chosen by the bishop and admitted at all hours. Occasionally, the superior receives the visits of other priests, and permits the nuns to see him, according to her discretion. The lay-sisters are permitted to walk with the boarders, and may be sent on errands, when anything is wanted for the use of the convent. The novices are strictly watched, and seldom allowed to leave the gates. They are distinguished from the others by their white veil. Their noviciate lasts three years, and a considerable sum is paid by them on entering, after which they are maintained by the establishment. The ceremony of taking the black veil is one of the most solemn and beautiful in the Roman Catholic religion.

High mass is celebrated in the chapel. The Bishop officiates in his splendid robes. The novice appears dressed in white, and sometimes decked with jewels like a bride. She kneels before the altar while the Bishop pronounces a discourse upon the solemnity of the vows which she is about to pronounce. She then retires behind the altar. Her long hair is cut off and she is invested with the nun's garment. She is then led forward to the Bishop, and having pronounced upon her knees, her intention of abjuring the world, and devoting herself to the service of God, she receives his benediction. The black veil is thrown over her. A solemn hymn is chanted to the notes of the organ, and the gates of the convent are henceforward closed upon her forever.

It is true that by the order of government, all nuns are now regarded as free from their vows after a certain period, but though a nun who breaks her vows is no longer built up in a wall as in days of old, yet there is a brazen wall of prejudice and public opinion which is almost as formidable to her, and it is probable that a long period will elapse before any female will have courage to break through these barriers, and to expose herself to the scorn of her companions, and the indignation of the Church.

The dress of the Saurs Hospitalieres is a robe of white casimir; a white muslin bandeau which crosses their forehead, with two long pieces of white muslin, which fold across the breast; a long veil of black crape, which conceals part of the face, and hangs down to the knees; a black and gold rosary with an iron cross upon which is an image of the crucifixion, and which usually contains relics, such as small pieces of the bones of saints; a piece of the true cross, &c, &c.

The nuns read no books which are not first examined by their confessor, and these are usually limited to the lives of the saints, and other works of a religious nature. Their evenings invariably conclude with psalms and prayers, performed in a large parlor, where they assemble when the duties of the day are over. The beauty of their embroidery is famous all over Europe. It is usually employed in robes for the priests, and hangings for the altars.

by the parents. The bride brings a truly liberal portion of all the various kinds of clothing, &c, called the trousseau, and it is the province of the bridegroom to furnish the jewels. No people are so poor that they have not ornaments of gold. Divorces are not common; but there are many separations, which are 1 settled by contract.

The funerals and cemeteries in France are worthy of imitation. The dead are not laid in a dismal, and 'neglected spot;' but their place of rest is adorned with classic monuments, shaded with trees, and planted with flowers. In an English or American burying-ground, a person is seldom seen unless at burials: but in France many of the graves are daily strewed with fresh flowers, by surviving friends; and family, and other groups, are often seen among them. The Cemetry of Pere la Chaise, at Paris, is one of the most remarkable and interesting objects attached to the capital.

25. GOVERNMENT. The government is a constitutional monarchy, and the succession of the crown is limited to the male line. The king commands the forces by sea and land, declares war, makes treaties, and appoints to all offices under the responsible advice of his ministers. There is no monarchy in Europe so limited as the French. The legislative power resides in the king, the house of peers, and the house of deputies of the departments; each branch may propose a law. The number of peers is unlimited, and the nomination of them belongs to the king. By a late law the peerage is no longer hereditary. The chamber of deputies is chosen by the electoral colleges. A citizen to be eligible to these, must pay 1000 francs direct tax, yearly, either in his own person or by delegation for his mother, grand-mother, or mother-in-law; and if there are not 50 of this description in a department, the right devolves upon the 50 who pay the highest taxes. There are but 80,000 of these electors in France.

26. LAWS. Several hundred particular systems of customs have been reduced to five codes, with general principles: the civil code, or general law of the country; the commercial code, the penal code, and the codes of civil, and of commercial procedure. They embody what was before loose, voluminous, and little known: the old laws of France are therefore necessarily referred to, for the illustration of these codes. The civil code has not been changed by the restoration, except in its name, which was before that event, the code Napoléon. The criminal code is not sanguinary, though it has been charged with giving too much power to the officers of government, in the selections of jurors. The courts are modelled on the English plan.

27. ANTIQUITIES. The antiquities are principally architectural, and are generally included in our description of towns. There are, however, many Roman remains. At Paris, there is one apartment, 60 feet long, and 42 wide, vaulted, and having 3 interior arcades, the sole remnant of the Palace of the Warm Baths, built by Constantius. At Lyons, there are several antiquities, especially the remains of two aqueducts, ascribed to Mark Antony, or Agrippa; a beautiful mosaic, the ruins of a theatre, and of subterraneous reservoirs. Many medals, coins, vases, statues &c, have been found in the vicinity. At Nimes, are more perfect monuments. The beautiful edifice, miscalled the Maison carrée, is in almost perfect preservation. It was some public edifice with a portico of 6 Corinthian columns in front, and 3 on each side. The cornice, frieze, capitals, and carved acanthus leaves, are perfect models in architecture and sculpture. The Temple of Diana has also much of the noble simplicity of ancient art.

But the greatest monument, though not the most beautiful of ancient Nîmes, the altera Roma, is the amphitheatre, which has no superior, but the Coliseum, and which is in a better state of preservation than that. It is of cut stones of prodigious size, which have the marks of the fire made by Charles Martel, to dislodge the Saracens. The porticoes are perfect, with columns, pilasters, and decorations, especially two bull's heads, two gladiators, and the she wolf with Romulus and Remus. There are also baths, mosaic pavements, and

various fragments. The Pont du Gard, seven leagues from Nîmes, is a stupendous Roman monument. This was an aqueduct across a river, composed of three several bridges, one above the other, of which the arcades successively diminish in space, and increase in number. The first range of arches has six openings, 83 toises in length, and 10 toises and 2 feet high; the second range has 11 arches of the same height, but 133 toises, 2 feet in length; and the third range has 35 arches, on a much smaller scale, and this was the canal, or aqueduct. There are many other Roman remains in different parts of France, but these near Nîmes are by far the most interesting. Rousseau thus describes his own sensations on beholding the Pont du Gard. 'I came,' says he, prepared to behold a monument worthy of the hands which had reared it. For the first time in my life, the reality surpassed my expectations; and it belonged only to the Romans to produce this effect. The aspect of this simple and noble work struck me the more, as it is in the midst of the desert, in which silence and solitude render the object more striking, and admiration more lively. One asks himself, what force can have transported these enormous stones so far from any quarry, and brought together the strength of arm of thousands of men, where there is not one man now? I went over the three stories of this superb edifice with a sentiment of respect which made me almost fear to tread it: the echoes of my footsteps beneath its immense vaults seemed as if I heard the strong voice of those masters of the world who had built it.'

28. HISTORY. France was originally inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic tribe. Julius Cæsar subdued them, and the country became a Roman Province. The Franks, a people of Germany, invaded Gaul in the 5th century, and Clovis their king, may be considered as properly, the first sovereign of France.* His descendants are called Merovingians, from Meroveus, one of the ancient Sovereigns. This race of kings became extinct in 754; when Pepin the Short, Maire of the Palace, became king. This second race of sovereigns are called Carlovingians, from Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, his son and successor, who became not only sole monarch of France, but Emperor of the West, and was crowned by the Pope at Rome. The Carlovingian dynasty ended in 987, by the accession of Hugh Capet, Duke of France, to the throne. The houses of Valois, Bourbon and Orleans, which have subsequently reigned in France, are different branches of the Capetian stock.

The Franks were a free people; and the feudal system was established under Hugh Capet. The early wars with the English generally resulted to the disadvantage of the French; and Henry V. of England, so far subjugated the country as to win for his successors the title of king of France. In the beginning of the 16th century, however, the power of France was developed, and her influence upon the affairs of Europe began to display itself in the conquest of Italy by Charles VIII. From this period, the kingdom gained power and ascendancy in the political system of Europe. Louis XIV. maintained great armies, and carried on wars for the amusement of the ladies of his court. Coalitions arose against him, and the power of France was crippled for half a century. Louis XVI. espoused the cause of American Independence, and introduced liberal notions of government among his people. The finances became embarrassed, all ordinary methods of retrieving them were found ineffectual, and the States General, or ancient assembly of the represen tations of the people, were summoned. From discussing fiscal affairs, they passed to debates upon the principles of government, and the French revolution began.

A new era commenced, marked by a political fanaticism, of which history affords no other example, and by crimes, the recital of which fills the mind with horror. Louis XVI. fell upon the scaffold, and France was governed by a few

*Louis, the name borne by so many of the French sovereigns, is probably a corruption of

Clovis.

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persons, who established the most sanguinary despotism, under the name of liberty. A crusade against revolutionary France was raised among the powers of Europe; but though anarchy reigned within, France repelled foreign armies, while the different parties in the National Convention, proscribed, banished and massacred each other. The government of the Directory succeeded, but was overthrown by Bonaparte, who became Consul of the French Republic. He put an end to factions, added new glory to the national arms, closed the gulf of the revolution, and gave a short peace to France.

In 1804, the Consul converted his laurels into an imperial diadem. Wars and coalitions against him only served to increase his power, and add territories to the French Empire. Napoleon ruled over the greatest part of Europe. When Consul, he changed kingdoms into republics. When Emperor, republics were changed into kingdoms. He founded monarchies in Germany; he gave crowns to his generals. Twice he saw the crown of Prussia at his feet without seizing it, but lavished the best blood and treasure of the empire, to place his brother on the throne of Spain. In 1812, he marched with an army of 400,000 men into Russia, and reached the ancient capital of the Czars, only to be a witness of its conflagration. A severe winter destroyed his whole army; and the man who shortly before had the most powerful host in the world at his disposal, beheld himself in a paltry sledge, fleeing obscurely homeward

across the frozen deserts of Poland. Yet never was the genius of this extraordinary person more strikingly manifested than in his unexampled reverses. A few months saw him again at the head of 300,000 men, and though abandoned by his allies on the field of battle, he made a glorious resistance against the combined efforts of Europe. His capital was occupied by the enemy in March, 1814, and he abdicated the crown, and retired to Elba.

The Bourbons returned to the throne from which the revolution had expelled them, but the disgrace of a foreign occupation wounded the national pride. Napoleon availed himself of the general discontent, and landed at Frejus, on the 1st of March, 1815. The sight of his face drove everything that was Bourbon out of the country, and he entered Paris at the head of the troops that were sent to take him prisoner. He levied an army for the national defence, gained the victory of Ligny, and was defeated the next day at Waterloo. He again abdicated, threw himself upon the generosity of the English, and died a prisoner and an exile.

After the second restoration, France had need of repose, and the Bourbon dynasty, although twice forced upon the people at the point of the bayonet, might with wisdom and moderation have kept upon the throne for many years, but Charles X. was so foolhardy as to attempt the restoration of absolutism. He

annihilated the Charter by a stroke of his pen; the people rose in insurrection, and fought his troops in the streets of Paris. A three days' battle ended in the overthrow of the king, on the 30th of July, 1830. France is now a republic in all but the name. The king rules by the will of the people. Hereditary nobility is abolished, and hereditary-monarchy may soon share the same fate.

1. BOUNDARIES AND EXTENT. Spain is bounded north by the Bay of Biscay and France, east and south by the Mediterranean and the straits of Gibraltar, and west by Portugal and the Atlantic. It extends from 35° 57 to 430 44 N. lat. and from 3 8 E. to 9° 18′ W. lon. Its greatest length from east to west is 640 miles, and its breadth 530, and it contains 183,000 square miles.

2. MOUNTAINS. The Pyrenees separate this kingdom from France, and run east and west from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, skirting the whole southern shore of the Bay of Biscay. In common language, the name of Pyrenees is applied only to that part of the range between France and Spain; the western portions are known by the appellation of the Mountains of Biscay, the Sierra of Asturias, the Mountains of Mondonedo, Santillana and Vindho. They were known to the ancients by the name of the Cantabrian Mountains. This range is, in some parts, 120 miles in breadth. The eastern peak of the Maladetta, the loftiest summit, rises to the height of 11,441 feet. On the south, the Pyrenees have a sterile appearance, but their northern sides are less precipitous, and afford many woods and pastures. Their highest summits are capped with perpetual snow. The level country on the French side is much lower than on the side of Spain. The most important defiles through these mountains, leading from France to Spain, are from St Jean de Luz to Irun; the pass of Roncesvalles, and the pass near the Mediterranean from Perpignan to Barcelona.

Proceeding south from these mountains we come to a second range branching off irregularly from the Pyrenees, first southeasterly and then southwesterly. This is called the Iberian Chain, and as it approaches toward Portugal, takes the name of Monte Gata. It divides Old from New Castile, and bears in different parts the names of Guadarrama, Urbia, Oca, Moncago, &c. Nearly parallel to the southern part of this, is another range, called the Sierra de Guadalupe, in the north termed the Mountains of Toledo. Still farther south is the Sierra Morena, or Brown Mountain, which in the time of Saracen dominion was the boundary between Moorish and Christian Spain. The most southerly range is the Sierra Nevada, or snowy ridge, which skirts the Mediterranean. These are the highest mountains in Spain. The Cumbre de Mulahacen, their loftiest point, rises to the height of 11,698 feet. The high summits are covered the whole year with snow and ice, and may be seen from the distant coast of Africa. On the other mountains of Spain, the snow seldom lies longer than a few months. Many of them are entirely barren, and exhibit nothing but a naked assemblage of crags, thrown together in the most picturesque manner. Some are covered with a scanty crop of grass and brushwood, and others are clothed with magnificent forests. Firs, oaks and cork trees grow in the higher regions. Chestnuts, tamarisks, pines and birches clothe their bases.