blanche. Of the Petrel, three species, viz. Fulmar, Shearwater, and Stormy Petrel. Of the Mergus, six species, viz. Goosander, Dun Diver, Red-breasted

Merganser, Smew, Red-headed Smew, Loughdiver. Of the Anas, thirty species, viz. Wild Swan, Tame Swan, Swan Goose, Canada Goose, Egyp tian Goose, Red-breasted Goose, Gray Lag, Tame Goose, White fronted Wild Goose, Bear Goose, Bernacle, Brent Goose, Eider Duck, Musk, Velvet, Tame, Hook-billed, Scaup, Bimaculated, Ferruginous, Pintail, Long

tailed, and Tufted Ducks, Teal, Garganey, Morillon, Golden Eye, Pochard, Widgeon, Gadwall, Red-breasted Shoveler, Shoveler, Shieldrake, Mallard, and Scoter. Of the Pelican, four species, viz. Corvorant, Crested Corvorant, Shag and Gannet. Of Reptiles, there are very few species in Europe. Venomous Serpents are rare. Fish of various kinds abound upon the coast, and in the rivers. There are several, as the Sole, Turbot, and others, particularly valued for the table, which are not found in America.

8. NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. Europe is indebted for its most valuable plants to other climes. Originally it probably possessed little more than forest-trees, a few shrubs, and some species of grass. The cereal and leguminous plants are now universally cultivated, and garden-herbs are here usually of finer quality than elsewhere. The vine is successfully cultivated at Witzenhausen, under 51° 21' 30", and at Zullichau under 51° 58'; but, with these excep tions, wine manufactured above the 50th parallel does not deserve the name. The northern countries furnish good materials for the carpenter and shipbuilder. The forest trees of the warmer climate are tamarisks, carubes, sumachs, mastics, the cork-tree, planes, sycamores, and cypresses.

9. MINERALS. Every species of the inferior and superior metals, and even several of the more precious minerals, are found in Europe. Hungary and Transylvania possess the nobler ores; Russia, Sweden, and Norway, abound in iron; England produces copper and tin; and Scotland, lead. There are likewise extensive mines of rock-salt, alum, saltpetre, and coal, in Europe.

10. POPULATION. It is difficult to estimate the precise amount of the population of Europe, notwithstanding the accuracy with which the census of most countries has been taken: for we do not possess a census of contemporary surveys, and in Turkey the population can only be loosely estimated from the number of hearths paying tax to the Porte. The population returns of Hungary, Spain, and Transylvania, are very old. In 1787, Zimmerman estimated the population of Europe at 144,000,000; at present, according to Malte Brun, it is not likely to be overrated at 205,000,000. In 1819, Hassel estimated it at 180,550,000. The Weimar statistical almanack for 1830 computes it at 213,977,108, which gives an increase of nearly 70,000,000, in 43 years. This population is not equally concentrated throughout Europe. Thus, in the Duchy of Lucca, it is in the ratio of 288 to a square mile; while in Iceland and Färoe it is only 13; in the Netherlands it is as 212, in Great Britain as 178, and in Sweden and Norway as 10 to the square mile. Upon the whole, the south of Europe is more populous than the north in proportion to its extent and must continue so, as the means of subsistence are procured with so much greater facility in the countries of the former than in those of the latter. The climate of Norway is quite as favorable to longevity as that of Lucca; but the one comprehends a vast tract of rugged, untillable surface; the other is a garden throughout.

11. INHABITANTS. The mass of European population neither consists of insulated nations nor of closely related tribes. The leading nations, according to Hassel, are: 1st, The German nations, predominant in Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Eastern Prussia. All these nations speak different dialects of the German language. 2d, The Roman nations, the descendants of those tribes which overthrew the Roman Western Empire, and settling in the subjugated countries, adopted the Roman or Latin language, which they however modelled upon their own dialects. Hence arose the mixed languages, called the Roman dialects, spoken at this day by the French, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, and Wallachians. 3d, The Slavonian nations, divided into numerous tribes, whose languages are kindred dialects. They consist of the Russians Proper; the Poles, Lithuanians, Letts, and Kurians; the Kassubes in Pomera nia; the Wendes in Pomerania and Silesia; the Bohemians; the Slawakes in Moravia and Hungary; the Croatians; the Reizes in Hungary and Russia; the Morlacks in Dalmatia and the Ionian Islands; the Montenegrians in Turkey; and the Bothnians, and the Uskoches in Dalmatia. 4th, The Finnic nations, including the Finns Proper, the Esthonians, the Livonians, the Lapps, and a mixed race, called Magyars, inhabiting Hungary and Transylvania, and by several viewed as a distinct nation. 5th, The Tartaric nations, divided into the following branches: the Turks, the Bulgarians, considered by some as Slavonians, the Tartars of Kasan, the Taurian Tartars, and the Nogaiens in Cherson and the Crimea.

Besides these principal nations, we may enumerate many distinct races in Europe. Such are the Greeks, the Arnauts, the Cimmerians, the Caledonians, the Basques, the Maltese, the Circassians, the Samoiedes, and the three scattered tribes of Armenians, Jews and Gypsies.

12. RELIGION. There are three great monotheistical systems of religious belief predominant in Europe, viz:

1st. Christianity, of which the principal seat and centre, though not its birth-place, is Europe. The nations assuming to themselves the title of Christian in Europe, are divided into three leading sects, viz. 1st. The Greek, or Eastern Church, which prevails in Greece, part of Albania, and Bulgaria, in Servia, Slavonia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Russia. The number of members belonging to it, in Europe, amounts to 50,000,000. 2d. The Latin or Roman Catholic Church, of which the Pope, one of the sovereign powers of Europe, is the head. This creed is predominant in Italy, Spain, Portugal,

France, Austria, the half of Germany and of Switzerland, the Southern Netherlands, Russian Poland, and Ireland, and numbers some adherents in Great Britain, Holland and Turkey. The total number of Roman Catholics in Europe, amounts to at least 95,000,000. 3d. The Protestant Church, which predominates, under different creeds, in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Great Britain, Prussia, a part of Germany and of Switzerland. This faith has also numerous professors in Hungary, Transylvania, and France. Its principal branches are the Lutheran, the Presbyterian, and the Episcopalian Church, and it may embrace about 47,000,000. 2d. Mohammedanism, or Islamism. This religion is professed by the Turks and other Tartarian hordes, the Circassians, and a part of the Arnauts. Its European votaries have been estimated at about 5,000,000. 3d. The Mosaic or Jewish religion. There are about 2,500,000 Jews scattered throughout Europe. They are not tolerated in Spain, Portugal, and Norway. In the Austrian States they have few privileges. In Great Britain their situation is not quite satisfactory. In Russia the laws relating to them have recently become very intolerant. In the States of the Confederation, in France, Prussia, and the Low Countries, they enjoy the rights of citizens, and, in Poland, they are even eligible to public employ

ments.

Pagans no longer exist in Europe: not even among the Lapponians, though that nation was the last in Europe to adopt Christianity. But in the northeast corner of Europe, upon the borders of the Icy Sea, there is a whole tribe which may be called Pagans, for, besides a belief in a Supreme Being who has created all things, they pay divine honors to the Evil Spirit, and employ enchanters. These are the Samoiedes; of whom, however, many proselytes have recently been made by the exertion of Christian missionaries.

13. CLASSES OF SOCIETY. In almost every European State, we find the citizens divided into four distinct classes. The first is that of the nobility, which exists in every State, with the exception of Norway and the Turkish empire. Nobility is, in most cases, viewed in Europe as an hereditary rank; but it can be acquired by the will of the sovereign, and even, in some instances, purchased by money. The clergy form the second class of the community. The third is that of the citizens, or inhabitants of towns, which in most countries enjoys peculiar rights and privileges. The fourth and lowest class includes the peasants, and forms the mass of the population in every country.

14. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. With the exception of the Nogaiens, Lapponians, and Samoiedes, in Russia, who yet lead the life of herdsmen or hunters, all the nations of Europe have been permanently located for many centuries. The cultivation of the soil has therefore been carried to great perfection in this part of the earth. Husbandry is pursued with the greatest industry, in the British empire, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany, some parts of Italy, Denmark, and Sweden. The agriculture of the east of Eng land, and Scotland, the Netherlands, Germany, and the northern parts of France and Italy, is most distinguished; although Russia, Hungary, and Poland, whose agriculture is not nearly so advanced, are the granaries of Europe. The rearing of cattle is in some countries pursued only in connexion with agriculture; in the mountainous districts alone it forms the principal branch of rural industry. The cultivation of fruits belongs to the temperate districts, particularly France and Germany; but the finer fruits can only be extensively reared in the southern parts of Europe. The manufacture of wine is most considerable in France, the south of Germany, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Turkish empire. The finest kinds are produced in Tokay, upon the Chalk Hills of Champagne, the Gold Hills of Burgundy, the banks of the Rhine and Garonne, in Spain, the two Sicilies, the banks of the Upper Douro, and some islands of the Egean Sea. The olive belongs to the warmer regions, particularly Apulia, Atino, in the Neapolitan territory of Terra di Lavoro, and Spain; the other vegetable oils are produced in the temperate

parts of Europe. The rearing of silk-worms is also peculiar to warmer climates, and is chiefly carried on in Lombardy. The cultivation of forests has been greatly neglected in most countries, and in many, a very sensible want of wood begins to be felt, although Europe is on the whole well-stocked with wood.* Fishing is peculiarly important to the coast-nations of Europe, who take herrings, tunnies, anchovies, mackerels, and various other species of fish, from the surrounding seas. Hunting forms a principal occupation only to a few small tribes in Russia. Mining is conducted with great skill in England, Germany, Hungary, and Sweden.

European industry is rivalled by no other part of the world, either in the diversity or the extent of its productions, although the Japanese and Chinese have cultivated some branches of art for many thousand years. Europe not only manufactures its own raw produce, but also that of almost every other region of the earth. The principal seats of European industry are Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, Germany, and Switzerland. The best woolen fabrics are made in England and France; cotton in England, Saxony, and France; linen in Germany; lace in Brabant; silks in France; paper in Holland and Switzerland; leather in Turkey and Russia; china in Germany; earthen-ware in England and France; glass in Bohemia and England; hardwares in England; bijouteries in France and England; millineries in France; straw-hats in Italy; and jewelry-work in France, Germany and England.

The internal commerce of Europe is carried on in all countries with considerable animation, and is facilitated by well constructed high-roads and canals, which are particularly good in the British empire, the Netherlands, France, Lombardy, Prussia, and Russia. The British, French, Danes, Netherlanders, Swedes, Hanseates, Ragusans, and Hydriots, are most distinguished in navigable commerce. But no nation can in this respect be compared with Great Britain, whose fleets are in every sea, and colonies in almost every region of the earth. As a medium of Exchange, all European States coin money. Many States likewise support a paper-currency, the imaginary value of which is maintained upon public credit. A prodigious quantity of money has been coined in Europe; but the ready money in circulation can scarcely exceed 2,000 millions of florins, of which the greater part is in circulation in Germany and France..

15. POLITICAL DIVISIONS. In political respects, Europe is divided into the following States, viz. Three Empires, viz. 1. Austria; 2. Russia; 3. Turkey.

Eighteen Kingdoms, viz. 1. Bavaria; 2. Denmark; 3. France; 4. Great Britain and Ireland; 5. Hanover; 6. Italy; 7. Naples; 8. Holland; 9. Belgium; 10. Portugal; 11. Prussia; 12. Saxony; 13. Sardinia; 14. Sweden and Norway; 15. Spain; 16. Wurtemberg; 17. Poland; 18. Hungary.

Six Grand Duchies, viz. 1. Hesse Darmstadt; 2. Baden; 3. Weimar; 4. Mecklenburg-Schwerin; 5. Mecklenburg-Strelitz; 6. Tuscany. One Electorate, viz. Hesse-Cassel.

Thirteen Duchies, viz. 1. Anhalt-Bernburg; 2. Anhalt-Dessau; 3. AnhaltKöthen; 4. Brunswick; 5. Lucca 6. Modena; 7. Nassau; 8. Oldenburg; 9. Parma; 10. Saxe-Gotha; 11. Saxe-Hildburghausen; 12. Saxe-Coburg; 13. Saxe-Meiningen.

Europe was doubtless covered with primitive forests, previous to its being populated from Asia. These forests disappeared before the gradual advance of the original Nomade tribes, from northeast to southwest. France was pretty well cleared of forests in A. D. 950, though they existed a much longer time in Germany. Mountainous districts preserve their forests longest, on account of the difficulty of transportation. The mildness of the climate in Spain and Turkey renders the destruction of the forests for fuel, less necessary. Greater attention is paid to the growth of wood in Germany and Switzerland, than in Italy and France. Austria is covered with forests. Moravia is well-wooded; Bohemia less so. Hungary has much wood; and Transylvania possesses it in abundance. But the best wood for ship-building is furnished by Russia, Norway, and Sweden. Britain affords some noble timber, but in small quantity.

One Landgraviate, viz. 1. Hesse-Homburg.

Ten Principalities, viz. 1. Hohenzollern-Hechingen; 2. HohenzollernSigmaringen; 3. Liechtenstein; 4. Lippe-Detmold; 5. Reuss of the Elder Line; 6. Reuss of the Younger Line; 7. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt; 8. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen; 9. Lippe-Schauenburg; 10. Waldeck.

One Ecclesiastical State, viz. the State of the Church.

Eight Republics, viz. 1. Switzerland; 2. Ionia; 3. San Marino; 4. the Free Towns of Hamburgh; 5. Lubeck; 6. Bremen; 7. Frankfort on the Mayne; 8. Cracow. A view of the present governments of Europe will be found in the Index,

CHAPTER LXXXIX. -THE BARBARY STATES.

1. BOUNDARIES, Extent and DIVISIONS. These States occupy the northern extremity of Africa, and form a narrow strip of territory along the south side of the Mediterranean. They are bounded by that sea on the north, by Egypt on the east, by the Great Desert of Zahara on the south, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the west. They extend from 29° to 37° 4' N. lat., and from 100 W. to 26° E. lon. The greatest extent of the territory from east to west is 2,600 miles; the width varies from 140 to 556. It is divided into 4 separate states, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers and Morocco, and the wild district of Biledulgerid.

2. TRIPOLI. This state, including Barca and Fezzan, is the most eastern in Barbary. It is bounded north by the Mediterranean, east by Egypt, south by the Desert, and west by the Desert and Tunis, and contains 270,000 square miles. Tripoli Proper is an arid district, thinly peopled. Barca is little more than a desert. Fezzan is traversed by the Soudah, or Black Mountains, and its surface in general is a desert sprinkled with verdant oases. There is little productive soil in any part of the country, and the cultivation is bad. Dates, maize and barley are raised, and figs, pomegranates, and lemons are abundant. Tripoli, the capital, has a good harbor upon the Mediterranean. The streets are straight and wide, and the houses regular and well built; the ar chitecture is more European than Arabian, and the city is much handsomer than the generality of the Moorish towns. Many of the houses are of stone, and the courts, mosques and gates are adorned with marble. The great mosque is a magnificent structure with four cupolas supported by Doric col umns of marble. The city is surrounded by a high wall and strongly fortified. Pop. 25,000.

Derne is a pleasant town in the district of Barca: it was taken by the Americans under General Eaton in 1805. The commerce of the country consists in the exportation of dates, honey, wax, madder, skins, oil, salt, saffron, gum, feathers, &c, some of which are brought by caravans from the interior. Most of the commerce is transacted at Tripoli. The government is absolute. The whole population may be estimated at 2,500,000.

3. TUNIS. This state is bounded north by the Mediterranean, east by Tripoli, south by Biledulgerid and west by Algiers. A mountainous ridge traverses it from north to south. In the south is a large lake, known to the ancients as the Palus Tritonis. The climate is healthy and the soil of the valleys and the lower part of the mountains is fertile.

Tunis, the capital, is one of the most flourishing ports in Barbary. The town stands on a rising ground at the bottom of a bay surrounded by chalky cliffs. It has manufactures of linen and woolen cloths. The inhabitants are the most polite and civilized of all the African Mohammedans. Pop. 130,000. Six miles from the city is Goletta, the citadel and harbor, very strongly forti

1