knowledge the French as masters. The Bey of Titerie sent in his submission, and was reinstated in his government, as an officer under French authority. An express was then sent to the Bey of Oran, with the same request. He excused himself from the charge of government under the French, on account of his advanced age, but readily gave the required submission, and agreed that a French garrison should enter Oran. The town of Bona, which had been often harassed by attacks of the Berbers, solicited the protection of the French. A detachment was therefore sent thither, which was well received by the inhabitants. The Bey of Titerie came to do homage to Bourmont, and requested him to pay a visit to Belida, a town about eight leagues distant from Algiers, and which he wished to attach to his government. But other considerations induced the general, to appoint an Aga as governor of the place. This dissatisfied the Bey of Titerie, and also the Berbers; but as General Bourmont wished to visit the town, he set out with a force of 1500 men and several officers. The troops expected to have only a pleasant, though rather long march; and though they saw numerous groups of Arabs, they met with no interruption, and proceeded first across a dreary plain, and afterwards through a fertile country, till they arrived at Belida. They were received kindly by the inhabitants, and slept them in safety that night. The next day the new Aga was installed into his office, and all seemed going on well, until towards, evening, when large troops of Berbers were seen approaching the town. At eleven o'clock some shots were heard near the house where the general was quartered, and an aide-de-camp who went out to see what was the matter, was instantly shot. It was now seen that vigorous defensive measures were necessary. The troops were ordered to march back to Algiers, without wasting time in following the roving hordes. During their homeward march they were harassed with clouds of Berbers, who attacked them with the greatest audacity, and did not desist until the French had re-entered Algiers. The Berbers then returned to Belida, and pillaged the town, in revenge for the kind reception which the Moors and Jews had given to the French. Thus ended an adventure which opened the eyes of the French to the dangers and difficulties of their situation. Had they to do with troops who observed anything like order or system in their attacks, the known courage and hardihood of the French would have made them equal to their task; but to conquer men who can gallop across a desert in every direction as soon as they meet with a defeat, is almost an impossibility. This retreat of the French from Belida had an unfortunate effect, in showing that they were not invincible. From that day the Arabs and Berbers approached Algiers, and committed all sorts of ravages upon the cultivators of the suburbs. Within the city, also, the good feeling which it was supposed had been established, changed: Jews thought the Turks were treated too well, and Turks thought that both Moors and Jews were unduly favoured. In short, almost the whole population of the city, headed and encouraged without by the Bey of Titerie, who now threw off the mask, turned against the French, and it was by chance that a plot was discovered, for massacreing every French man in the place. Severe measures were taken, productive of a partial good effect; but by the end of July, doubt, anxiety, and disease had lowered the enthusiasm of the French, both men and officers, very considerably. The dysentery had carried off more than two thousand men. On the 11th of August a corvette appeared in the bay, bearing the news of the French revolution of 1830. The general and his officers, in addition to their other troubles, were now much embarrassed to know what part to take in the new order of things; but on the 2nd September, Marshal Clausel arrived, with the information that he was appointed to fill the station occupied by Bourmont, and that Louis Philippe had been made king. Bourmont gave up his command, but declined to return to France, preferring to go to some other country as a private individual. The French found it necessary to relinquish Oran and Bona, and confine themselves wholly within the city: indeed they may almost be said to have been imprisoned there by the Arabs, who massacred every soldier who ventured far from the city. Marshal Clausel afterwards undertook an expedition to Medeya, a town situated in the little Atlas mountains, for the purpose of planning the establishment of a model farm, which should be the nucleus from whence a system of profitable cultivation might spread out. His attempt was tolerably successful; but he had on his return the same sort of evidence which General Bourmont had received, of the warlike and hostile disposition of the Arabs and Berbers. It required all his skill and resolution to prevent his men from falling a sacrifice to the incessant attacks of the Arabs. LONDON: Published by JOHN WILLIAM PARKER, WEST STRAND; and sold by all Booksellers. WICLIF. "THE very names of Wiclif, Lord Cobham, Huss, &c." says Gilpin, "will not only awaken sentiments of gratitude and veneration in every ingenuous heart, but will likewise excite a laudable desire of being particularly acquainted with the lives and characters of those eminent worthies who, in times of peculiar danger and difficulty, nobly dared to oppose the tyrannical usurpation, and barbarous superstition of the Church of Rome, and sacrificed every valuable consideration on earth to the cause of truth and liberty. Wiclif was in religion what Bacon afterwards was in science, the great detector of those arts and glosses which the barbarism of ages had drawn together to obscure the mind of man." nity, and become Theological Professor in the University of Oxford, Wiclif publicly read lectures on theology, and again directed his attention to the exposition of the abuses which had at that period crept into the Church. In 1374 Wiclif was sent by the king, with other ambassadors, to treat with the pope, and to protest against the improper disposal of English benefices on Italians, Frenchmen, and other aliens, ignorant of our language. In the course of this treaty, which lasted for two years, Wiclif was made more sensible than ever of the pride, covetousness, and ambition of the pope. He wrote against the doctrine of indulgences, and, by his zealous opposition to the Church of Rome, encountered no small share of obloquy and annoyance. He had now been appointed Prebendary of Aust; and in 1376 the king presented him with the rectory of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire. A short memoir of the great man whose name occurs first and foremost in the above passage, will doubtless be acceptable to the readers of the Saturday The time having arrived for a violent attack to be Magazine. We therefore present it, in illustration of made on Wiclif, by enemies who had long been the beautiful piece of sculpture, an outline copy of watching for an opportunity to gratify their revenge, which appears at the head of this paper; the original a citation was issued, commanding him to appear bas-relief, the work of Mr. Richard Westmacott, jun., before the convocation at St. Paul's on the 19th Febhaving been placed in the parish-church of Lutter- ruary, 1377. On the appointed day Wiclif, accomLutter-ruary, worth, Leicestershire. panied by his friend and patron, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and Henry Piercy, earl-marshal, attended at St. Paul's, when, in consequence of a quarrel between the bishop of London and the earl-marshal, which led to a dreadful riot out of doors, the court broke up without adopting any measures. John Wiclif, called the morning-star of the Reform ation, was born about the year 1324, near Richmond, in Yorkshire. Of his childhood, nothing is certainly known; but we learn that when only sixteen he was admitted commoner of Queen's College, Oxford. He soon afterwards removed to Merton College, where he was first probationer, and afterwards fellow. He was soon regarded as a person of profound knowledge. The study of the Holy Scriptures, however, afforded him the most delight. He wrote notes, and expositions, and homilies on several parts of them; and thence acquired the title of the Evangelical, or Gospel Doctor. In 1360 he distinguished himself by his wise and vigorous opposition to the encroachments of the begging friars, whose order had been introduced into England in 1221, and who had now increased to an extravagant number. In exposing the "hypocrisie, covetise, simonie, blasphemie, and other leasings" of this mendicant fraternity, it is no wonder that Wiclif heaped up for himself a formidable accumulation of wrath but this was of little importance to a champion successfully engaged in one of the most momentous contests recorded in the history of the Church. In 1361 he was advanced to the Mastership of Baliol College, Oxford, and four years afterwards to the wardenship of Canterbury Hall, which had been then recently founded by Archbishop Islip. He was, however, in 1370 expelled from the latter situation by a bull from the pope, who also imposed silence upon him and on certain secular clerks, who had also been ejected. We now arrive at a most important event, not only as it relates to Wiclif, but to the Church of England. Pope Urban the Fifth had given notice to the king (Edward the Third), that he intended by process to cite him to his court, then at Avignon, to answer for his default in not performing the homage which King John acknowledged to the see of Rome, for his realm of England and Ireland; and for refusing to pay the tribute granted to that see. Such claim the king had determined to resist, and the parliament had approved the determination, when an anonymous monk had the effrontery to vindicate the Pope, and insist on the equity of his claim. In opposition to that writer, and in defence of England against popish usurpation, Wiclif presented himself as a zealous, able, and successful antagonist. In June, 1378, the papal delegates sat again, having assembled at Lambeth, for the execution of their commission, when the queen-mother, widow of the Black Prince, sent for Sir Lewis Clifford, to forbid them to proceed to any definitive sentence against Wiclif. At that meeting Wiclif attended, and delivered an able and interesting paper, in which he assigned reasons for the statements he had made, and for which he had been cited; but his explanations being unsatisfactory to the delegates, they commanded him no more to repeat such propositions, either in the schools or in his sermons. By the death of Pope Gregory XI. in this year, an end was put to the commission of the delegates, and Wiclif appeared before them no more. About this time he published his book on the Truth of the Scriptures, and in 1379, in consequence of the fatigues he had endured, he was seized with an alarming illness, and appeared to be at the point of death. From that attack, however, he recovered, to the inexpressible joy of the Reformed Church. In 1380, in his lectures, sermons, and writings, Wiclif exposed the Romish court and clergy. At the same period he was engaged, with other pious and learned men, in translating the Holy Scriptures into English. This translation was bitterly assailed, but it was ably defended by Wiclif, who also firmly maintained and upheld the right of the people to read the Scriptures. In this and the following year he ably opposed the popish doctrine of transubstantiation. This opposition excited the malice of his enemies, and he was censured by the Chancellor of Oxford, and some doctors of the University. Wiclif appealed from this decree of the chancellor to the king. Archbishop Sudbury, about this time, being beheaded by the rebels, William Courtenay, bishop of London, was translated to the see of Canterbury, by the pope's bull, and, in 1382, in a court of certain select bishops, condemned several of the opinions of Wiclif, as pernicious, heretical, and repugnant to the doctrines of the Church. In addition to these, and other strong measures, Courtenay obtained letters-patent from the king, In 1372, having taken his degree of Doctor of Divi- directing that Wiclif, with other excellent men, should be expelled from the University of Oxford, and ordered that his publications should be everywhere seized and destroyed. Thus persecuted, and overcome by force, he was at length obliged to quit his professor's office, and retire to Lutterworth; where, however, he still continued his studies, and endeavoured to promote the reformation of those corruptions which he was convinced were everywhere prevalent, through the glosses and unscriptural assumptions of the Romish Church. A DISCOURSE ON GEOLOGY. II. HEAT OF THE GLOBE. as the mean temperature at the surface. THE solar rays are the principal source of heat on the surface of the globe, the temperature varying in relation to the amount of these rays, and conse, quently decreasing from the equator to the poles. The temperature also varies with day and night, and with the seasons of the year, At a certain depth Soon after his removal to Lutterworth, he was below the surface, nowhere exceeding one hundred seized with a fit of the palsy, of which he soon re- feet, these variations become insensible, and the temcovered, being again able to perform the pastoral func-perature is constant, or fixed, being nearly the same tions of his parish, and to undergo those severe labours which his sense of duty, in trying times, had imposed upon him. Still hunted by his enemies, he was cited to appear before Pope Urban, but he returned a letter of excuse, and did not attend. Though his health had now begun gradually to decline, he preached the word of God, in season and out of season; till at length, on Innocent's day, 1384, he was attacked with another fit of the palsy, while performing the service in Lutterworth church. In this state he remained two days; and was finally taken to his rest on the last day of the year, and in the sixty-first year of his age *. Wiclif had well studied all the branches of theological learning,—was deeply skilled in the ecclesiastical and civil law; was grave, yet cheerful, and, above all things, loved God with all his heart, and his neighbour as himself. His writings were numerous and learned, and assisted greatly in bringing about the establishment of our Reformed Church, which is the true instructress of the people in pure and undefiled Christianity, and on the principles of which our Constitution, in Church and State, are founded. May those principles ever be respected! If from this point of equable temperature, we find a gradual decrease of heat as we dig deep into the earth, we must necessarily conclude that the interior parts are colder than the surface, and that there is no reason to imagine the earth to have any other heat than that derived from the solar rays. But if, on the contrary, it be found that as we descend into the earth, an increase of temperature occurs, we cannot but admit that the earth has a proper or inherent temperature derived from internal sources. Experiment proves the latter to be the case. These trials to determine the internal heat of the earth have been made at various depths, and under different circumstances—in artesian wells, salt pits, coal-works, and mines of different metals; and it appears to be fully ascertained, that in situations far removed from volcanic action, and in different kinds of strata, water, air, and rocks continually grow warmer as we descend in the earth. Without a single exception, the interior of the globe has been found to be warmer than the surface; and the heat augments constantly with the depth; the mean or average in * Admirable, that a hare so often hunted, with so many packs of crease, being one degree of Fahrenheit in forty-five dogs, should die at last quietly sitting in his form !--FULLER. INSCRIPTION UNDER AN HOUR-GLASS, IN A THIS babbling stream not uninstructive flows, And bids thee blush, whose days are spent in vain. EPITAPH ON THOMSON,' OTHERS to marble may their glory owe, WE behold with admiration the vivid azure of the vaulted sky, and variegated colours of the distant clouds; but, if we approach them on the summit of some lofty mountain, we discover that the beauteous scene is all illusion, and find ourselves involved only in a dreary fog, or a tempestuous whirlwird; just so, in youth, we look up with pleasing expectation to the pleasures and honours which we fondly imagine will attend maturer age; at which, if we arrive, the brilliant prospect vanishes in disappointment, and we meet with nothing more than a dull inactivity or turbulent contentions.-SOAME JENYNS, English feet. Indeed, the heat in some deep mines becomes so oppressive, that the miners can with difficulty pursue their labours. Such being the case, it will be evident, if the same ratio of increase continue, that the heat at considerable depths in the interior of the earth must be most intense, acting as the mighty counteracting cause before alluded to, which prevents the compression of the materials in the interior of the earth. The notion of an incandescent mass in the interior of the earth is startling to many, and not without discomfort to some; but so far from finding in this any cause of alarm, a further consideration of the subject will declare to us that the preservation of the world in its existing state is probably dependent on this powerful agent. Thus, in thy world external, Mighty Mind, The temperature at the surface is, as has already been observed, dependent on solar radiation; and the rocks in the upper strata of the earth are such bad conductors of heat, that no sensible effect appears to be produced at the surface by this internal heat. It may, and probably has sufficient influence, to prevent the refrigeration or cooling of the earth beyond the present temperature at the surface, and thus may act its part in adapting the earth for the present races of organized beings. But we must remember that this intensely heated mass in the interior of the globe is no new condition of things, but that if it exist, it must have existed for many centuries, probably from the era of man's creation. For it appears, there is no reason to conclude that any change has taken 487-2 in marine or fresh-water sediments, (the latter being of much rarer occurrence,) on the same area or surface, forming "a series of monuments" which mark the numerous changes of organic and inorganic nature. place in the climates of the earth since the earliest | In each system of strata lie entombed the remains historical records; and astronomy informs us that of different races of beings, all successively buried the general temperature of the mass of the globe has not varied one-tenth part of a degree for the last two thousand years. This is proved by calculations of the moon's motion. All solid rocks, except clay, expand when heated, and were the heat of the globe increased, its diameter would be augmented and its motion retarded. If, on the other hand, the heat of the globe were diminished, this motion would be accelerated; and thus we may be led to the conclusion that so far from being an element of destruction, the very continuation of the earth in its present state may be dependent on this intensely heated mass, ordained for this purpose by an all-preserving God. It is, however, supposed that the internal temperature of the earth may have been considerably greater in ancient geological eras; and that by the greater heat thus at those periods communicated to the surface, even the frozen regions of the present day may have been capable of sustaining races of organic beings, found in those parts in a fossil state, but whose modern representatives only inhabit the hottest regions of the globe. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF STRATA. On examining into the structure of the earth's crust, (as that small portion of the exterior of the globe accessible to man's observation is termed,) we discover in all parts a series of mineral masses evidently not scattered and mixed at random, but arranged in much order, and frequently spread over areas of considerable extent. And though, in some cases, we find that the original position of these mineral masses has undergone great subsequent disturbance, proofs of the order that once prevailed may be distinctly observed. The greater part of these mineral masses, which constitute the rocks and beds or strata of the earth, are evidently composed of matter deposited by, or accumulated under water, formed in a manner similar to that which is constantly in progress at the present day, in the beds of rivers, lakes, and in the ocean. In most instances the water carries down sand, clay, and other sedimentary matter, which sinks to the bottom, and banks and shoals are formed. These, at least such as come under our observation, are usually of small extent; whilst the different groups of strata of the ancient world are mostly on a scale of great magnitude. Thus we find masses of limestone several hundred feet in thickness, and in other places vast beds of sand or of clay. An examination of sandstone rocks leaves no doubt that they have experienced the agitation of water; such are called sedimentary deposits. Some limestones yield evidence of similar agitation, but others appear to be aggregates or aggregations of particles of carbonate of lime, slowly deposited from water holding that substance in solution. It will be evident that if we find a series of horizontal strata of sedimentary origin, the uppermost bed must be of later formation than those which are beneath; some instances occur, indeed, where by convulsions of extraordinary violence the original position of the strata has been actually reversed; but such instances are rare, though it is by no means uncommon to meet with strata thrown into an inclined position. These strata are all characterized by their peculiar fossils, the greater part being full of the remains of marine exuviæ, exactly as we might expect to find the bed of the ocean at this day filled with the exuviæ of now existing or lately perished animals. It appears, therefore, that the greater part of the present continents at some former period existed in a sedimentary form at the bottom of the sea. But to have become so consolidated as they are at present, these formations must have been subjected to some other condition, some other agent must have been at work. This agent is supposed to be subterranean heat, acting upon the various substances of which the rocks are composed, either whilst under the pressure of super-incumbent or overlying rocks, or that of a deep ocean. These sedimentary rocks, though apparently modified by heat, are evidently of aqueous origin, or formed by water; but there is another class of rocks which appear to be of igneous origin, or formed by fire, or heat. Among these rocks are granite, trap, lava, &c. All these igneous rocks present the appearance of having been in a state of fusion, and as they all either form the lowest of the series of rocks, or have apparently been ejected from an unknown depth below, in a melted state, as is the case with existing volcanoes, they corroborate the opinion of great central heat. These various formations occur in all parts of the globe, though they have hitherto been principally studied in Europe and in North America. Great Britain is singularly prolific in an extensive range of geological formations, and it has been prettily said, "As if nature wished to imitate our geological maps, she has placed in the corner of Europe our island, containing an index series of European formations in full detail *." Indeed, the series of British strata represent very well the suc cession of stratified rocks not only in Europe, but also in part of Africa, Asia, and North America, the agreement being very close in those parts which are nearest to the British islands, and being vague and indefinite as the distance increases. The greater number of recognised stratified rocks occur in this island, and though volcanoes are unknown, igneous rocks belonging to the granite and trap formations are met with in some parts; and few districts of such comparatively small area, perhaps, present so complete an assemblage of the successive geological groups. This is a fact of much interest to the British student of geology, who thus may have it in his power to study all these formations in his native land. They do not, however, occur equally in all parts of the island, and should our attention be confined to a limited district, we might very possibly find the number of strata exceedingly limited. It has been amusingly remarked, that, "If a stranger were to land in Cornwall, and, after traversing the whole extent of that county and of North Devon, and crossing over to St. David's, were to make the tour of North Wales, and from thence passing by the Isle of Man, through Cumberland, to the southwestern shores of Scotland, should proceed either through the border counties, or along the range of the Grampians to the German Ocean, he would conclude from such a journey of many hundred miles, that Britain was a thinly peopled, sterile region, whose principal inhabitants were miners and mountaineers. "Another foreigner, arriving on the coast of Devon, and crossing the midland counties, from the mouth ♦ WHEWELL'S Anniversary Address, 1839. |