man Em

the government whereby the empire was divided into an eastern and a western half (regularly after 395). At 14. Decay the same time the government was made entirely des- of the Ropotic, and the capital was removed to Constantinople. pire (180– Under Constantine the Great (died 337) came the end of 375 A.D.) the persecutions of the Christians, and the recognition of Christianity as the official religion of the state.

But these changes could not check the Roman decay, for it was due to deep-seated and long-existing causes. Among these causes we may note the following: (1) A great decrease in population, caused by famines, wars, and pestilence. (2) Unwise methods of taxation, which destroyed the middle classes, and fixed men in their stations and occupations, as in hereditary castes. (3) Free peasants gradually became serfs, bound to the soil, while slaves rose in the social scale and blended with the depressed freemen. (4) There was a physical and moral decline of the Romans, due to the effects of long-continued war, to luxurious living, and to enervating habits in peace. (5) Christianity drew the best men into the service of the church, and turned their attention from the problems of this world to winning salvation in the next. (6) A lack of national feeling resulted from the despotism of the government, and the general employment of German barbarians in the army.

As a result of the growing weakness due to these causes a time came when Rome was no longer able to withstand the nations who pressed upon her borders from without. Then the mighty fabric of her empire was soon laid in ruins.

D. THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES

The chief cause of Rome's fall was its internal weakness, but the occasion came with the entrance into the empire, at the end of the fourth century, of whole nations of Ger- 15. Invamanic barbarians. The VIS'IGOTHS, when attacked in the rear by Huns from central Asia, were allowed to (376–476) cross the Danube frontier into Roman territory. At Adrian

sions of the Germans

ople, in the year 378, they then overthrew and slew the Emperor Valens. Under their young king, Al'aric, they ravaged Greece, overran Italy, and sacked Rome (410). Under Alaric's successors they established a Germanic kingdom in Spain and southern Gaul, which lasted for three centuries (to 711). The example set by the Visigoths was speedily followed by other nations. The VANDALS overran Gaul and Spain; then, upon the coming of the Visigoths to the latter land, they passed over into Africa (429), where they ruled for a hundred and five years. The FRANKS, who were settled about the lower Rhine, gradually occupied northern Gaul. The BURGUNDIANS, passing from the middle Rhine to the Rhone valley, established there a kingdom which lasted until 534. The ANGLES and SAXONS, invading Britain in their piratical vessels (about 449), established kingdoms which later consolidated into the kingdom of England (Angle-land). In 451 the savage Huns extended their raids into the heart of Gaul, but were turned back by the united efforts of Romans and Visigoths. The death two years later of their leader At'tila, "the Scourge of God," released Europe for a time from the dread of Asiatic rule.

the West

At Rome the last of a line of weak and foolish Emperors of the West came to an end in 476. Odoa'cer, the leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army, then assumed 16. End of the title of "king." He sent ambassadors to lay at the feet of the Eastern Emperor, at Constantinople, the im- (476) perial crown and purple robe, professing that one Emperor was enough for both East and West. For some years Odoacer enjoyed his "kingdom" over Italy in peace. In 493, however, he was defeated and murdered by Theod'oric the Great, king of the OS'TROGOTHS, who had come into Italy with the Eastern Emperor's consent to overthrow the usurper. Theodoric had been brought up, as a youth, at Constantinople; he now proved to be one of the greatest of the barbarian kings. He made many wise plans for the permanent union of his Ostrogoths with the Romans into a great kingdom. But the Romans held the orthodox Christian belief, while the Ostrogoths, in

common with most of the German barbarians, had been converted to A'rianism, an heretical form of Christianity. Heresy, or the holding of religious opinions condemned by the church, was regarded throughout the Middle Ages as a sin. Heretics, therefore, were bitterly hated by the orthodox. As a result of this religious antagonism between Romans and Ostrogoths, Theodoric was unable permanently to unite the two peoples.

tinian (527

565)

The Emperor Justinian came to the throne at Constantinople in 527 (the year following the death of Theodoric) and ruled 17. Eastern until 565. He greatly strengthened the Eastern Empire Empire unand also profoundly influenced the West. (1) His generals der Jusdrove out the Ostrogoths from Italy and the Vandals from Africa, and recovered those lands temporarily for the Roman Empire. (2) He was a great builder, and filled every corner of his empire with forts, churches, monasteries, hospitals, and aqueducts. The most splendid of his buildings was the great cathedral of St. Sophia, which is still one of the sights of Constantinople. (3) He caused the provisions of the Roman law on every subject to be sought out and arranged in a series of systematic works, called the Code, the Digest, and the Institutes. The Code is a collection of the decrees of the Emperors; the Digest contains the opinions of the expert lawyers or judges who had interpreted these decrees; and the Institutes is a textbook, giving the principles of the law in a simplified form for the use of students. The importance of these collections is very great. The most powerful influence of Rome on the modern world has been through its law; and it was the work of Justinian, in collecting and systematizing the law, that put it in shape to be preserved and handed down to later times. To-day Roman law is the basis of the legal systems of most of the countries of Europe, and of one of the American States (Louisiana). Some one has said that Roman law is "crystallized reason," because it is so clear and practical in its applications. The fact that its provisions can still be applied in spite of the enormous changes in society which have taken place since Roman times, is testimony to the justice of this characterization. One principle

of the Roman law is contained in the famous maxim, "All men are created equal," which played so important a part in both the American and the French revolutions. Another principle was that "what pleases the prince has the force of law." If the former passage could be used as an argument in favor of liberty, the latter could be used by kings and other rulers of the later Middle Ages in support of their attempts to overthrow the power of the nobles and build up absolute monarchies.

danism

The beginning of the seventh century saw the rise of a new religion and a new political power. This was due to the teachings of Mohammed (571-632), an Arab who claimed to 18. Rise of be divinely inspired. He united the Arabs, rescued Mohammethem from the worship of sticks and stones, and taught them that there was but one true God (Allah), of whom he (Mohammed) was the Prophet. The teaching of Mohammed

was embodied in a book called the Koran'. It contains also Jewish, Christian, and Persian elements. For example, the Hebrew patriarchs and prophets, including Christ, were accepted by Mohammed as messengers from God; but Mohammed. declared himself the last and the greatest of these. Along with many good and noble ideas in his religion were mixed baser elements, arising out of the ignorance, cruelty, and superstition of that time. Mohammedanism became one of the great world religions, and to-day numbers among its adherents about one seventh of the earth's population. By the year 632 all Arabia had accepted Mohammed's teaching. Fanatical zeal