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this the author has deemed the following discriminations to be important.

A. Words borrowed from the Greek. And as such we understand only those which passed over, after the Latin had separated itself etymologically from its sister language, and had taken an independent place. For those which, on account of the relationship of the two dialects, have the same or a similar sound, ought not to be regarded as the property of the Greek but as the common possession of both languages. Hence in this dictionary, ab, alius, ager, ago, fero, etc. are represented as only etymologically allied with ἀπό, ἄλλος, ἀγρός, ἄγω, φέρω, etc. ; but aegoceros, aliptes, blitum, ceruchi, chelys, etc. as borrowed from the Greek. But of this latter class a number of words have become mongrels, or in grammatical phrase voces hibridae, through a purely Latin termination, or through composition with a purely Latin word; for this reason a discrimination is necessary, which is effected in the lexicon, in the case of Greek words unchanged in form, or no more essentially varied than with vs put for os, a for ʼn or ŋs, etc., by prefixing a to them, and placing the sign before the original word printed in Greek letters. Hybrid forms, on the contrary, while they retain the † are denoted by [] including the original word. For example:

taenigma, -atis, n. = αἴνιγμα, etc.

+aliptes or alipta, -ae, m. = ἀλείπτης, etc.

=

† apologatio, onis, f. [from anóλoyos, with the Lat. ending -atio.] † chamae-tortus, -a, -um, adj. [vox hibrida from yauaí and tortus.] Remark 1. The attention paid to Greek literature among the Romans, from the Augustan age onward, led to the use, in the Latin written style, of a considerable number of Greek terms of art, sometimes in Greek and sometimes in Latin characters. It is clear that lexicography can take notices only of those words of this sort, which are written in Latin letters. Now it is known that later transcribers gave a Latin dress to many words in the classics which were at first written in Greek, and hence in different editions of the classics, according to the manuscripts which are followed, the same word now appears in the letters of the one language and now of the other. Such cases bring the lexicographer into perplexity, and he finds the difficulty of having one consistent rule the greater, owing to the fact that in all probability some writers had no one rule of their own, just as we Germans, in spite of the many and earnest remonstrances of purists, have not yet ceased to write foreign terms of art at one time in German

1845.]

Words borrowed from other Languages.

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and at another in Latin letters. Thus in Celsus (5, 28. No. 2), cacoethes appears by the side of xaxóndes (ib. bis), whilst in editions of Pliny, even the Greek plural xaxoŋŋ is never written otherwise than in Latin characters; and indeed in the manuscripts and editions of this latter author the practice of using Roman letters prevails even in cases where the annexed words, "Graece vocant," render the Latin use of the word doubtful. And in like manner we find in Quintilian, who generally writes Greek technical terms in Greek letters, xazoĽýhov (8. 3, 56) and xaxošŋlía (8. 6, 73), but cacozelia (2. 3, 9). Modern editors of Latin authors seem to follow the rule that in the earlier writers except Pliny, as Cicero, Varro, Quintilian, Celsus, Donatus, etc. Greek letters are to be preferred; but Latin, on the contrary, in such as Servius, Priscian, Isidore, and the like; and in truth this is a convenient principle in a subject so fluctuating as this, and so important for the criticism of the text. But whether it will guide us safely in every case, and even against the authority of the best manuscripts, has as yet not been decided, and needs to be put to a careful proof.

Remark 2. When the lexicographer refers latinized words to their Greek source, he not unfrequently meets with Greek words which are sought for in vain in collections of extant Greek words, owing probably to their not being preserved in the extant literature of that language. The precious stone Borsycites, for example, mentioned by Pliny, (37, 11, 73) as all will admit, is of Greek extraction; but where is the corresponding original word to be found? The case is the same with botryitis, botryon, brabyla, (ae,) brya, brochon, bucardia, cacsapon, cachla, catastema, together with many others; and here rich gleaning for Greek lexicography may be expected. In the present dictionary, such not extant Greek words are only then supposed, when there is no serious doubt concerning the way of writing them. On the other hand, words like brochon must remain without the original word, and are indicated to be of Greek origin only by a cross.

B. Words borrowed from other languages: the Celtic, Gallic, Iberian, Hebrew, Persian, etc. To these, two crosses are prefixed: for the most part it cannot be said what was the form or the way of writing the original word; and therefore our usual rule in such cases is to annex in brackets merely the language from which the foreign word is borrowed. For example:

†† caudosoccus, -i, m. [Gallic word], etc.

†† ballux (bal.), -ucis, f. [Spanish word], etc.

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†† bascauda, -ae, f. [British word], etc.

†† Bagous, -i, and Bagoas, -ae, m. Bayãos and Bayoas [Persian word], etc.

But, on the contrary,

†† burdo, -onis, m. =
†† camelus, -i, m. xáunhos

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§ 6. Foreign names which have been carried over together with foreign historical data into the Latin literature, although there expressed in Latin letters, yet properly cannot be held to be incorporated into that language, because their reception, being occasioned merely by the historical. narratives where they occur, is only an external one; and in all languages, like hieroglyphics, they must preserve the same form. Yet so far as such words are (so to speak) the carriers of knowledge derived by the Romans from abroad, they ought not, as we have seen above, to be shut out from Latin lexicography. Only the etymological clement has no claim upon them, and therefore their original words are immediately annexed without any sign. As for example:

Aeolus, -i, m. Aiolos, (1) the god of the winds, etc.

Aaron, m., brother of Moses, etc.

Remark. From what was just now said it follows, that the Latin lexicography of such foreign names must look only at the relations given by Latin authors, even when these accounts are at open variance with those of original authors, as is, for instance, frequently the case in the departments of mythology, geography, and history. Compare Aeaca, Calypso, etc.

III. Of the Method of handling the several Articles.

§ 1. Every article of a Latin lexicon forms a monography of that Latin word to which it is devoted; and therefore according to I. § 2, it must trace the history of the inner and outer nature of that word through the whole period of its existence in the Latin language. Now according to I. §§ 2-8, whatever appertains to such a history may be reduced to seven elements; we have therefore to show, in this place, how the present lexicon, in giving the history of each single article, has had respect to each of these ele

ments.

A.) Grammatical element. In conformity with the limits drawn above (I. § 2), an account as complete as possible of extant anomalies has been inserted in a parenthesis to accompany what is said of the grammatical formation, construction, etc. For example, capio, cepi, captum, 3. (antiquated form of the exact future capso),

1845.]

Mode of handling the various Articles.

87

Plaut. Bacch. 4. 4, 61. capsit, id. Pseud. 4. 3, 6; Attius in Nonius Marcell. 483, 12; comp. Festus, p. 44. capsimus, Plaut. Rud. 2,

1, 15. CAPSIS, according to Cic. Or. 45, 154, erroneously taken by him to be contracted out of cape si bis; comp. Quintil. Inst. 1, 5, 66 Spalding. Old way of writing the perf. CEPET = cepit as, EXEMET, DEDET, etc.; Columna Rostrata.), etc.

Arbor, -oris (poetic secondary form, arbos, like labos, colos, honos, etc. Lucret. 1, 774; 6, 787, etc. Also the accus. ARBOSEM, Fest. p. 13. Comp. Schneider, Gram. etc.)

Avis, -is, f. (abl. sing. both avi and ave; comp. Varro, de Ling. Lat. 8, 37, 120; Priscian, p. 765 Putsch, Rhemn. Palaem.* p. 1374. 16; Schneid. Gram. 2. 227, in the religious use more frequently avi... ; but in Varro L. L. 7. 5. 99 ave is a gloss. See Spengel on the passage), etc.

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Ad, praep. with the accus. (on account of the hard pronunciation of d sometimes written at. See at. Old form ar, as in arreho, arbiter, for adveho, ådbiter from arbitere adbitere. So ar me advenias, Plaut. Truc. 2, 2, 17. and in inscriptions arfuerunt, arfuisse. Comp. Prisc. p. 599. Putsch, etc.), and so on. Here the difficulty not uncommonly presents itself that a word which must be taken as the basis of an article, occurs in several forms. In such cases prevalent usage alone can decide, and accordingly many words have another ground-form given to them [in the present work] than they have hitherto had in the lexicons. Thus, for example, more and better authorities are found for the neuter form baculum, -i, than for the received masculine baculus; which requires us to shape the article in the lexicon as follows:

Baculum, -i, n. (baculus, -i, m. very seldom), etc.

In like manner biga, the singular, which came into vogue after the Augustan age, has been put behind the plural form, bigae; and so in many other cases.

Often, too, linguistic analogy is brought into conflict with historical dates. Here, in obedience to the excellent remarks in the eighth book of Varro's Lingua Latina, the historical takes precedence; because it is the duty of the author of monographs to insert only real matters of fact into his sketches. For this reason it is, that no adjective, bicorniger, -era, -erum,-which nowhere occurs-has been admitted into the lexicon, but only Bicorniger, -eri, m. [a title of Bacchus.] And if hereafter a catalogue of extant supines shall be made with critical accuracy, a lexicon will be

Q Rhemnius Fannius Palaemon, a grammarian who flourished under Claudius.-TR.

obliged to separate all such forms known to exist, from merely hypothetical ones.

B. Etymological element. This has a very easy and an extremely difficult side. To tell whence words like accipio, concipio, excipio, etc. come-what can be easier? But scientific etymology seeks also to discover the origin of words like capio itself; and this, as is well known, is the problem, to the solution of which a body of the ablest linguists in our days have devoted all their energies and their acuteness; which many believe themselves to have solved, whilst others deride it as the arena for the useless play of empty combinations. Hazardous as it still is, in the violent contest of two parties to try to keep a strict neutrality, yet the author of the present lexicon, who can neither speak insincerely against his convictions, nor meanly avoid declaring his opinion where it is looked for, feels obliged here openly to avow that he can share neither in the sweet faith of the former party, nor in the cold contempt of the latter. He cherishes firm trust in the amazing power of the human mind to penetrate even into the secret laboratory where words were formed, seeing it has succeeded in unveiling the mystery of the formation of worlds. He follows, therefore, the progress of these zealous efforts in every line [which they indite] with love and with a joyous feeling of high and simple delight; and refuses not to bestow upon the unwearied investigators this strengthening hope, that they are but a small remove from the very topmost point toward which they aspire. But he cannot suppress his apprehension that what seemed, when seen from afar the summit, will prove but the boundary line of a lower region, beyond which new chains of mountains tower in their vastness to the heavens; and for this reason he is afraid as yet to join in the triumphal jubilee. Indeed the question of the origin of the Latin language is beginning at this moment to be far more involved than many are willing to believe: Germanism is opposing the Sanscrit with powerful weapons, and urges its claims to be the origin of Latin. The author feels, therefore, that he would be called over hasty if he allowed the Sanscrit or the German element to have the predominance in his work.

There is, however, a mode of treating etymology in a lexicon, which leaves the controversy just mentioned out of sight, and yet does justice to the demand of the higher comparison of languages. We see this pursued by Gesenius in the Latin revision of his excellent Hebrew lexicon; where, for instance, it is said under "(1) ferre (Praeter veterum Semitarum linguam haec radix late

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