ample supply of money, but the use of both gold and silver would render international dealings easier, than when some countries use gold, and some silver, and when there is no common measure of value and medium of exchange. Unfortunately, the efforts to bring about an agreement among the nations in favor of international bimetalism have thus far proved anything but encouraging.

One of the requirements of a good monetary system could be secured, either directly by the government or by banking institutions. What is wanted is a flexibility in the monetary supply, so that it may answer the varying needs of an industrial community. The Imperial Bank of Germany has the right to supply money indefinitely, on payment of five per cent tax on its issues which exceed the amount regularly allowed, and this renders possible an expansion of money to answer special needs. The crisis of 1893 would not have proved so disastrous in the United States, if we had had a United States Bank with like power. Various plans have been elaborated for the improvement of our monetary and banking systems in the United States, but thus far it has not been found practicable to agree upon any one system. The more radical parties in the country have not elaborated any plans which have succeeded in gaining adherents among prudent men, even those most inclined to favor social reform.1

An extension and development of public property, if carefully carried out, would mean a considerable improvement in present conditions. Many suggestions for an extension of public property have already been offered. The ownership of forests by government is now a gener

1 Cf. Kinley's "Independent Treasury," Vol. I. of the Library of Economics and Politics.

ally recognized necessity; and fortunately, even in the United States, we are beginning to move in this direction. Public halls, conveniently located for popular meetings in cities, are demanded by wage-earners, and English cities have begun to comply with the demand to some extent. At present, meetings are frequently held in connection with beer halls and other places, where the consumption of intoxicating beverages is made to pay for the use of accommodations. Schoolhouses can be better utilized than at present. There is no reason why outside of school hours they should not subserve general social purposes, although care must be taken to provide guaranties that the property shall not be injured in any way.

The relation of person to property suggests a class of reforms. At present the aim seems to be to protect property rather than person, whereas person should receive chief protection, and there should be a development of personal rights having pecuniary significance. This applies to employers' liability and to laws designed to secure one in the enjoyment of one's reputation and good

name.

Another measure, upon which a vote will be taken in Switzerland presently, is the organization of a medical service with a supply of medicines, as a department of government. The expenses of illness are one of the most serious burdens the poor have to bear; but it is questionable whether it is not better to develop other institutions, like insurance, to meet needs of this kind, and also to improve and extend hospitals and medical dispensaries along lines already approved by experience; and especially whether it is not better to endeavor to prevent illness by sanitary measures.

CHAPTER IX.

ADDITIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR PRIVATE EFFORTS.

THE reforms already mentioned have been of such a character that they must be brought about largely, although not exclusively, by public effort. There are many improvements which can be secured by private action. Independent individual attention is required to afford relief and help in cases which do not fall under general rules, and these are many. Social effort, whether of the state or of society, must proceed according to general principles, and its power is thus limited. There are those about us in society continually who can be helped individually, but for whom it would be extremely difficult to provide the assistance needed either by public action or by voluntary social action. We are taking it for granted that public authorities and societies do their full duty; but of course they fall far short of this high standard, and private effort must make up the deficiencies as well as it can. A peculiarly fruitful field for individual effort is found in co-operation with public authorities to secure an excellent administration of laws, and to build up public institutions. The private individual who has gifts as a leader of polite society can also use these gifts to extend the benefits of social culture, and to add a charm where it is too often wanting to social life.

Persons who have large means naturally have peculiar opportunities. They may use these means to assist in developing public schools of all sorts, public libraries,

universities, art galleries, and the like. Several philanthropists are inclined to give to the public on condition of public co-operation. Mr. Andrew Carnegie has stated that he did not think it worth while to give to a city a public library unless the people of the city were willing to support it, in part at least, by taxation. Mr. Enoch Pratt required as a condition of his gift of a public library to Baltimore a substantial contribution on the part of the city. Examples of this kind are to be commended, as they encourage self-help and prevent the growth of a bad kind of paternalism, that is, the paternalism of private wealth. Similarly wise philanthropy will often prefer to make gifts to State universities, and thus encourage and develop a spirit of self-help. Art galleries and great schools of art could be advantageously founded by men of wealth, making it a condition that a part of the expenses should be defrayed by taxation.

The question is often raised whether individuals should not help wage-earners by an attempt to exercise control. over consumption. It is frequently said that those who have sympathy with workingmen and working-women should not "buy cheap," and should not patronize "bargain counters." This recommendation is not one which can be indorsed. First, if people should cease trying to buy cheap, the result would be a discouragement of improvements. It is commendable to try to offer goods at a low price, and thus bring them within the reach of as many who need them as possible. In the second place, when one patronizes shops where high prices are charged, one has no guaranty whatever that those working for this shop will, on account of high prices, receive better remuneration. The most which could be done in this connection would be to patronize "union" shops,

and to purchase "union-made" goods; for the trades unions secure at least a certain minimum of wages, and offer some protection to those who are in them. There has been a decided effort to secure popularity for "union labels." It is not, however, always practicable to buy union goods or to patronize union shops. The protection of the worker must be secured through control of production by factory legislation and the like, rather than through any individual attempt to control consumption.

When private efforts are associated, they can accomplish much more; for it must always be remembered. that we are discussing social conditions, and that these are established by social action. Labor organizations have a field, although it is a limited one. All careful thinkers now recognize the inherent limitations in labor organizations. Many abuses are connected with them, and their efforts must always be partial; at the same time, they are indispensable. Altogether apart from a high educational value, they are necessary to enable the workers to combine their strength and to insure fair treatment, as the employer in any large establishment is so much stronger than the individual workman.

Profit sharing represents a desirable combination between employer and employee, and when carried out with a good intent on both sides, frequently produces excellent results. Profit sharing is especially well adapted to industry on a large scale, when the success of an undertaking depends in marked degree upon the peculiar skill and watchfulness on the part of the employee. Its field must, however, always be a limited one.'

Voluntary co-operation, both in production and consumption, has up to the present been able to conquer

1 On this subject consult" Profit Sharing between Employer and Employee," by N. P. Gilman.