only a small share of the industrial field, but it has produced many beneficial effects, direct and indirect. The tendencies toward centralization of business have raised up new difficulties, which have impeded an extension of co-operation. It is naturally far more difficult for a large number of men to co-operate according to the voluntary system, than for a small number, and it is especially difficult if the number required in industrial establishments is one that fluctuates. At the same time, as the co-operative spirit, the spirit of mutual helpfulness, increases in intensity, we may anticipate that in a large number of cases the difficulties inherent in voluntary co-operation will in a large number of instances be overcome. Especially will a better education promote co-operation.

The farmers, who have already been helped by cooperation in the manufacture of butter and cheese in co-operative factories, and who have often advantageously combined their efforts for the purchase of goods, especially in the Patrons of Husbandry and other farmers' organizations, are able to use still further the advantages of co-operation; especially in the purchase and sale of commodities, also in the purchase of improved tools and stock, and in the introduction of scientific methods. Grape-growers in different parts of the country have entered into grape-growers' associations, in order to place their grapes on the market advantageously.

Fraternal societies, whose chief work has been mutual insurance, have accomplished a great deal, and under careful supervision by trained experts of government, as in New Zealand, are able to accomplish still more. No one who has not looked into the subject appreciates what they are doing in the United States and other countries

already. It is scarcely an exaggeration to say that in parts of the South it is difficult to find a colored person who does not belong to some such society, and the relief which these societies afford explains the astonishingly small amount of pauperism which exists among the colored people; for it is astonishingly small when we remember that so short a time has passed since these people were slaves, and when we remember further how low, even now, is the condition of industrial development which they have reached. Unfortunately, the work of societies of this sort is greatly impaired by poor management. Generally speaking, there is no control over the insurance business of organizations of this kind by government in the United States, although our various commonwealths have extended their supervision. over ordinary life insurance companies, which require it even less. Charity organization societies, with their friendly visitors and their careful control over relief given to the poor, to prevent fraud, have accomplished much, and deserve further encouragement. They are able to weed out a large proportion of all pauperism which exists, and would do so if properly assisted. The fact that, in cities where a large proportion of the people profess Christianity, it is so difficult to find the comparatively few friendly visitors needed, is a sad commentary upon the kind of Christianity taught in our churches.

Societies for the promotion of temperance have a well recognized field. Less well known are the beneficial effects of social or college settlements in the poorer parts of cities. These cultivate a spirit of neighborliness, beneficial alike to persons of means and culture living in the settlements, and to their less fortunate neighbors who need their leadership. It is hard to over

estimate the good accomplished by a settlement like Hull House in Chicago. A very few persons, a mere handful, so to speak, have been able to influence beneficially an entire section of Chicago, numbering many thousands of human beings.1

2

Associated private effort becomes especially fruitful when it co-operates with public effort in the administration of law, and the building up of public institutions. This can be done by an enlightenment of public opinion, by inspection of institutions, by bringing about changes in legislation and administrative methods when these are needed, also by aiding the more ignorant and weaker portion of the community to secure their rights. The New York State Charities Aid Association offers an example of a most useful society, which has secured the right of inspection of charitable institutions, prisons, etc.; which, by frequent visits, has improved very greatly the administration of public institutions designed for dependent and delinquent classes, and has recommended very beneficial changes in the laws. Among many other achievements this society has abolished the care of the insane by the counties, turning them over to the State, and has brought about an amelioration in the condition of that most unfortunate class, numbering some fifteen or twenty thousand persons. The Bureau of Justice of

1 A pamphlet on Hull House may be had by addressing Miss Jane Addams, 335 South Halsted Street, Chicago, Ill. Cf. also the chapter on that subject in Mr. W. T. Stead's work, "If Christ Came to Chicago."

2 The secretary is Mr. Homer Folks, United Charities Building, Twenty-second Street and Fourth Avenue, New York City.

8 Perhaps the Ohio system is still better than that which has been described. In Ohio the local Court of Common Pleas appoints a Board of County Visitors, consisting of three men and three women,

Chicago is an organization which offers the benefit of legal services to those who are ignorant of the law, or who are unable to secure their legal rights, and by comparatively small expenditure of time and money has accomplished noteworthy results.1

"Law and Order Leagues" are well known, and societies to improve legislation as a whole or in certain. particulars have accomplished good results. Uniformity in legislation and simplification of legislation and legal processes are desirable. Under this head mention may be made of the Divorce Reform League. Associated effort can accomplish much more than individual effort in the beneficial control of consumption. One of the methods is to boycott those who deserve such a punishment, a dangerous proceeding which, unless carefully controlled, will work more harm than good, and another is to issue" white lists "of those persons and firms who are to be commended for honest dealing, and especially for generous treatment of employees. But even associated effort has not, in this respect, been able to accomplish much. Attention must again be directed to the control of production rather than of consumption.

who have the right to visit all charitable and correctional institutions which spend public money in any way. Each board addresses its report to the court from which it receives its appointment, and also to the Board of State Charities. It is part of the duty of each judge to notify the board in his county when juveniles (under sixteen) are to be tried; and it is the duty of the board to be represented at the trial. The members of the board serve without pay.

1. The annual reports of this society are most instructive. For these reports and other information the reader should apply to Joseph W. Errant, Esq., Agent and Attorney, Rooms 718 and 719, Garden City Block, Randolph Street and Fifth Avenue, Chicago, Ill.

* Rev. Samuel W. Dike, LL.D., secretary, Auburndale, Mass.

CHAPTER X.

POLITICAL REFORMS.

THE referendum and initiative, or imperative petition, as it is also called, and proportional representation, have already been mentioned as reforms advocated by socialists; but they are reforms which must meet the approval of those who desire far less radical changes. They receive and they deserve commendation from those who are to be classed among social reformers, as distinguished from socialists. They are of special importance in the United States, where legislative bodies so often betray their trust, and become subservient tools of great corporations and powerful private interests. The referendum and the initiative put legislation in the hands of the people, and give them as good legislation as they deserve. These measures do much to prevent corruption, because they make it possible to compel the submission of any proposed law to popular vote. The legislator who promises to give away valuable privileges can never be sure that, to use the phrase of the vulgar politician, "he will be able to deliver the goods."

The referendum and the initiative have, in Switzerland, been favorable to progressive conservatism, and nothing can be more desirable. Reforms have not proceeded so rapidly as many ardent reformers have desired, but, fortunately, progress has been continuous. When reforms are introduced by operation of the initiative and referendum, the people are ripe for them; or, if they