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In the light, then, of these two characteristics of the modern social question, its radical intention and its ethical passion, a further quality which one observes in the present situation may appear at first sight surprising. It would seem as if there were an obvious kinship between the spirit of this Ziegler, "Die soziale Frage eine sittliche Frage," 1891, a stirring attempt "to examine critically the conditions which exist, and to consider how they may be brought to an issue in which our highest good shall not be lost," s. 8. See also: Jodl, " Volkswirtschaftslehre und Ethik, Deutsche Zeit- und Streitfragen," 1886; F. Hasler (from the Roman Catholic standpoint), "Ueber das Verhältniss der Volkswirtschaft und Moral," 1887; Bonar, "Philosophy and Political Economy in some of their Relations," 1893, Bk. V; International Journal of Ethics, January, 1897, p. 191, C. S. Devas, "The Restoration of Economics to Ethics," "All [these sciences] move in an ethical atmosphere; all have principally to do with what is right and wrong"; L. Ragaz, "Evangelium und Moderne Moral," 1898; and for the history of this "socialization of ideals," Stein, "Die soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie," 1897, especially s. 660 ff., "Die Sozialisierung der Religion." Compare also the evidence of the economists: A. T. Hadley, "Economics," p. 23, "The modern economist . . . would say that nothing was economically beneficent which was ethically bad; he would insist with equal force that nothing could be ethically good which was economically disastrous "; C. D. Wright, "The Relation of Political Economy to the Labor Question," 1882; F. A. Lange, "Die Arbeiterfrage," 1879. Note also the remarkable expansion of systematic ethics into the sphere of the social question: Wundt, "Ethik," 1886, ss. 159 ff., 498 ff., 529 ff.; Paulsen, "System der Ethik," 1889, s. 698 ff.; and his paper before the 10ter Evang.-soz. Kongress, 1899, s. 95, “Wandlungen des Bildungsideals in ihrem Zusammenhang mit der sozialen Entwickelung"; Runze, "Praktische Ethik," 1891, s. 65 ff., with much bibliographical material; H. S. Nash," Genesis of the Social Conscience," 1897, p. 223 ff.; Newman Smyth, "Christian Ethics," Ch. IV; "The Social Problem and Christian Duties."

new philanthropy and the spirit of the Christian religion. In both there is the same sense of value in the humblest human soul, the same desire for a spiritual democracy, the same call for self-sacrifice, the same readiness to overthrow existing traditions and institutions for the sake of righteousness. The social question, one might anticipate, would be at heart not only an ethical question but a religious question also. "The religious element," said Mazzini, "is universal, immortal. . . . Every great revolution has borne its stamp and revealed it in its origin or in its aim. . . . The instinctive philosophy of the people is faith in God." 1 "Socialism," it has been remarked, "in its most explicit and absolute form, has a great attraction for the masses, by reason of that quality which it possesses in common with the gospels. .. It is this factor which has lent to those who profess and propagate it the illusion of an apostolate, and has inspired in those who are its objects an enthusiasm extending to fanaticism, to crime devoid of personal motive, to the scaffold itself."2 Yet, nothing is in fact more conspicuous than the lack of practical coöperation, and in many instances the distrust and hostility, which prevail between these two ways of social service. Sometimes there is a candid dread of theological complications, as when scientific charity lays down the

1" Faith and the Future," 1835.

2 "Nuova Anthologia,” 16 November, 1898, p. 269. F. NobiliVitelleschi, "Il Socialismo di Stato."

principle of abstinence from proselytizing. Some times there is a sheer disappointment with the social effectiveness of the Christian Church, such as forced one of the most judicious labor leaders in England to say that he saw no place for religion in the working-man's programme. Sometimes, again, there is a genuine reproduction of Christian principles of conduct without formal recognition of the Christian Church, as in the extraordinary growth of the coöperative system in Great Britain. In many such ways of social activity the instincts which in other centuries would have drawn people toward religion are finding their satisfaction without religion; or, rather, are finding in philanthropy or labor unions or coöperative societies or kindred social interests practical equivalents for religion, satisfying hearts with generous emotions and offering strong persuasions to loyalty and fellowship. When, further, we turn to the more radical expressions of social discontent, the prevailing attitude toward religion becomes even less friendly. It is not necessary to notice the merely vulgar talk of agitators who make it a part of their stock in trade to ridicule and vilify the religious life.1 It should also be observed that in

1 A collection of such coarser utterances may be found in Kaufmann, "Christian Socialism," 1888, Ch. IX; and in profusion in Köhler, "Sozialistische Irrlehren von der Entstehung des Christentums," 1899, s. 21 ff. "To suppress religion which provides an illusory happiness is to establish the claim of real happiness," "Nouveau Parti," 1884 (Kaufmann, p. 195). "The cross, once a symbol of suffering, is now a symbol of slavery," To-day, January,

the official programmes of social revolution religion is, as a rule, declared to be a matter of personal decision, as though neutrality toward it were proposed. The expositors of revolutionary principles, however, maintain no such reserve. They do not scruple to affirm that among the pillars of the present social order, which must be overthrown if the better social order is to prevail, are the institutions and habits of the Christian religion. "The revolution," said Bebel, " differs from all its predecessors in this, that it does not seek for new forms of religion, but denies religion altogether."2 "The first word of religion," wrote Friedrich Engels, "is a lie." "The idea of God," said Marx, "must be destroyed; it is the keystone of a perverted civilization." "It is useless," adds Mr. Belfort Bax, "blinking the fact that the Christian doctrine is more revolting to the higher moral sense of to-day than the Saturnalia of the cult of Proserpina could have been to the conscience of the early Christians; "3 and in another place he says: "In what sense socialism 1894 (Kaufmann, p. 3). “We are all, I take it, disciples of the materialist philosophy of history derived from Marx," Remarks at Stuttgart Congress (Köhler, s. 7).

1"Erklärung der Religion zur Privatsache," Programm der sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands. See also, Nation, Nov. 12, 1891, "German Socialists in Council," an account of the Erfurt Congress of 1891, F. G. Peabody.

2" Die wahre Gestalt des Christentums," 2. Aufl., 1887, quoted by Herrmann; "Religion und Sozialdemokratie," 2ter Evang.-soz. Kongress, s. 13.

Quoted, Pall Mall Magazine, April, 1895.

is not religion will be now clear. It utterly despises 'the other world,' with all its stage properties, that is, the present objects of religion. In what sense it is not irreligious will be also, I think, tolerably clear; it brings back religion from heaven to earth. . . ." "It is in the hope and struggle for the higher social life that . . . the socialist finds his ideal, his religion." "The socialist requires no transformed Christian rites to aid him in keeping his ideal before him. . . ." "It is only natural that the socialist should resent with some indignation the continual reference of ideal perfection to a semi-mythical Syrian of the first century, when he sees higher types even in some men walking this upper earth." 1 In short, as the eloquent Pastor Naumann concludes, "Social democracy turns against Christ and the Church because it sees in them only the means of provid. ing a religious foundation for the existing economic order." 2

1

Bax,

"The Religion of Socialism," 1886, pp. 52, 96.

2 F. Naumann, "Das soziale Programm der evangelischen Kirche," 1891, s. 49. The attitude of scientific socialism to the Christian religion is sufficiently indicated by: "Geschichte des Sozialismus in Einzeldarstellungen," 1895, 3ter Band, F. Mehring, "Geschichte der deutschen Sozialdemokratie,” 1897, 2ter Teil, s. 387 ff., Die Christlich-soziale Agitation; Engels, "Zur Geschichte des Urchristentums, Neue Zeit," 1894-1895; Lütgenau, "Natürliche und sozialistische Religion," 1894; Stein, "Die Soziale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie," s. 660 ff., "Die Sozialisierung der Religion." The popular acceptance of this view is illustrated by Rade, "Die sittlich-religiöse Gedankenwelt unserer Industriearbeiter," 9ter Evang.-soz. Kongress, 1898, s. 66; and by P. Göhre, "Drei Monate

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