'Contr. Aristocr., p. 641-2). In the time of Isocrates, when the| dokimasia had ceased, or become a dead letter, and profligacy of life was no bar to admission into the council, its moral influence was still such as to be an effectual restraint on the conduct of its own members (Isocr. Areop.,' p. 147). In the corruption of manners and utter degradation of character which prevailed at Athens, after it fell under the domination of Macedonia, we are not surprised to find that the council partook of the character of the times, and that an Areopagite might be a mark for the finger of scorn (Athenæus, 4, 64). Under the Romans it retained at least some formal authority, and Cicero applied for and obtained a decree of the council, requesting Cratippus, the philosopher, to sojourn at Athens, and instruct the youth (Plut. Vit. Cic.,' c. 24). It long after remained in existence, somewhat superior in dignity, and perhaps equal in power, to a modern court of aldermen in a municipal corporation. The old qualifications for admission were neglected in the days of its degeneracy, nor is it easy to say what were substituted for them. Later times saw even a stranger to Athens among the Areopagites.

We shall conclude this article with a few words on the forms observed by the council in its proceedings as a court of justice in criminal cases. The court was held in an unenclosed space on the Areopagus, and in the open air; which custom, indeed, it had in common with all other courts in cases of murder, if we may trust the oration (De Cæde Herodis,' p. 130) attributed to Antiphon. The Areopagites were in later times, according to Vitruvius, accommodated with the shelter of a roof. The prosecutor and defendant stood on two separate rude blocks of stone (Paus. 1, 28), and, before the pleadings commenced, were required each to take an oath with circumstances of peculiar solemnity; the former, that he charged the accused party justly; the defendant, that he was innocent of the charge. At a certain stage of the proceedings, the latter was allowed to withdraw his plea, with the penalty of banishment from his country (Dem. ' Contr. Aristocr.,' p. 642-3). In their speeches both parties were restricted to a simple statement, and dry argument on the merits of the case, to the exclusion of all irrelevant matter, and of those various contrivances known under the general name paraskue (maрaσкevǹ), to affect the passions of the judges, so shamelessly allowed and practised in the other courts (Or. Lycurg., p. 149, 12-25; Lucian. Gymn.,' c. 19). Of the existence of the rule in question in this court, we have a remarkable proof in an apology of Lysias for an artful violation of it in his Areopagitic oration (p. 112, 5). Advocates were allowed, at least in later times, to both parties. Many commentators on the New Testament have placed St. Paul as a defendant at the bar of the Areopagus, on the strength of a passage in the Acts of the Apostles (xvii. 19). The apostle was indeed taken by the inquisitive Athenians to the hill, and there required to expound and defend his new doctrines for the entertainment of his auditors; but, in the narrative of Luke, there is no hint of an arraignment and trial.

Some of our readers may perhaps be surprised that we have made no mention of a practice so often quoted as peculiar to the Areopagites, that of holding their sessions in the darkness of night. The truth is, that we are not persuaded of the fact. It is, indeed, noticed more than once by Lucian, and perhaps by some other of the later writers; but it is not supported, we believe, by any sufficient authority, whilst there is strong presumptive evidence against the common opinion. It was, as it should seem, no unusual pastime with the Athenians to attend the trials on the Areopagus as spectators (Lys. Contr. Theomn.,' p. 117, 10). We suspect that few of this light-hearted people would have gone at an unseasonable hour in the dark to hear such speeches as were there delivered, and see nothing. Perhaps there may be no better foundation for the story, than there is for the notion, till lately so generally entertained, that the same gloomy custom was in favour with the celebrated Vehmic tribunal of Westphalia.

ARES ("Apms), the god of war and strife among the Greeks, generally considered as corresponding to the Roman Mars. Homer makes him a native of Thrace, and others consider him the father of several Thracian rivers and races. It is therefore highly probable that he was the god particularly worshipped by some northern people, though nearly all other traces of this circumstance have disappeared. The Scythian deity known to Herodotus as the god of war, whom he calls by the Greek term Ares (iv. 62), was worshipped under the form of an iron scimitar, to which horses and other quadrupeds were annually offered; and also every hundredth man of captives taken in war. In the later genealogy of the gods he was considered the son of Zeus and Hera (Jupiter and Juno), and, as such, took part in the war against the giants, and slew Mimas and Pelorus. In the contest with Typhon he fled with the other gods into Egypt, and was changed into a fish. He was not more successful in his engagement with Otus and Ephialtes, the children of Alous, by whom he was imprisoned for thirteen months. To a still later period we must refer the murder of Halirrhotius, and his trial before the court of Areopagus, as well as his combat with Hercules.

It is a curious circumstance that the Greeks, though constantly engaged in war, should have paid little attention to the worship of Ares. There were few temples erected to his honour in Greece. Geronthræ, a village of Laconia, had a temple and grove where a yearly festival was celebrated, to which no female was admitted (Paus. iii.

22): there was another on the road from Amycle to Therapne in Laconia (iii. 19), and a third at Athens (i. 8). Though, as we have remarked, Ares seems to be a Thracian god, yet the element of the word Ares is an integral part of the Greek language, and the word which denoted best and bravest, aristos (apiσTOS), is the superlative of ares. The Sanscrit ari, nom. aris, signifies an enemy. In early times human sacrifices were offered to him by the Lacedæmonians, dogs by the Carians, and asses by the Scythians (Apollod. · Fragm.' p. 394, ed. Heyne).

It is difficult to say what distinctive character ancient artists wished to give to this god, because no Greek state honoured him as their principal deity. We have no distinct account of his statues by Alcamenes and Scopas in the temple at Athens, but we can collect, from some that have been preserved, and also from heads of the god on gems, that the following is the general character under which he is represented. The expression is stern and thoughtful; firm nervous muscles, a strong fleshy neck, and short bristly hair; the mouth is small, the lips full, and the eyes deep-set. It is only in later times that he appears with a strong beard as the Roman Marspiter. He is represented always as a young man in the prime of vigorous strength. When not naked, his dress is a chlamys (sagum). See a beautiful head on a gem (Millin, P. Gr. 20); a standing figure on a basso-rilievo (Pio Clem. iv. 7); head on the coins of the Mamertini (Magnani, iv. 31, 32); on the Denarii of Fonteius Capito (Patin. p. 114). In later art he wears only the helmet. In groups he is often figured with Aphrodite. On gems he occurs as the giant-slayer: but in sculpture he is seldom represented as a combatant or engaged in strife. Hirt,Bildende Kunst,' 1833; Müller, Archäologie der Kunst,' §§ 372, &c.

Mars or Mavors (called Mamers in the Oscan language), the god of war among the Romans, was regarded by them as identical with the Greek Ares, but there can be little doubt he had originally a different origin. He was also called Marspater or Marspiter (Gell., v. 12), and was worshipped in peace under the name of Quirinus, and in war under that of Gradivus. There was a temple in Rome sacred to Quirinus, and another outside the city, in which he was worshipped under the name of Gradivus, on the Appian Way, near the gate Capena (Servius on 'Eneid,' i. 296). Among the Romans Mars was honoured next to Jupiter. According to tradition, Romulus was the son of Mars, by Rea Silvia; and it was perhaps owing to his being the tutelar god of the Romans that the husbandmen were accustomed, according to Cato (De Re Rust.,' c. 141), to present their prayers to this deity, when they purified their fields by performing the sacrifice called suovetaurilia, which consisted of a pig, a sheep, and a bull. He is also called by Cato, Mars Silvanus (c. 83). According to a principle in Roman mythology, by which a male and a female deity are always supposed to preside over the same object of fear or desire, the Romans had a goddess of war called BELLONA.

A round shield (ancile), which was supposed to have been the shield of Mars, is said to have fallen from heaven during the reign of Numa, and was entrusted to the care of the Salii, the priests of Mars. Eleven other shields were made like it, in order that it might not be

stolen.

The first month (Martius) of the old Roman year, which consisted of ten months only, derived its name from this god.

Mars is generally represented with a beard, but in other respects like the Greek Ares, and is frequently placed in the same group with Rea Silvia. In the Townley Collection in the British Museum, on the base of a candelabrum of Roman workmanship, there is a group of three little figures carrying the armour of Mars, and the helmet borne on the shoulders of one of the figures, is marked in front with the head of a ram, which animal was consecrated by the Romans to Mars as well as to Mercury.

ARGAND LAMP, so called from the name of its inventor, who was a native of France. This lamp has been made of various forms, for the different purposes of reading and of diffusing general light. In the simplest form of the Argand reading-lamp, there is a reservoir from which oil descends gradually to a cistern, and is thence conveyed by a pipe to the burner containing the wick, placed between two tubes and immersed in oil. The wick rises a little above the upper surface of the burner; there is a glass chimney, the lower part of which is enlarged, in order to increase the current of air upwards; the chimney rests on a gallery or stand, where it is kept in its place by four wires. By turning the gallery, the wick is either raised or lowered. The wick is hollow and cylindrical, and receives a current of air both internally and externally; the former enters through open work near the bottom of the burner, and the latter at the gallery: this indeed constitutes the peculiar principle and merit of the lamp. There is a shade surrounding the light, so as to prevent its acting too powerfully on the eyes Below the reservoir is a handle, which, when the lamp is burning, is depressed, to allow of a supply of oil to descend into the cistern, and which is raised to cut it off when the lamp is not in use. A small cup is screwed below the burner, to receive any drops of oil which may fall. The internal mechanism is thus arranged: The reservoir terminates in a neck, which screws into the upper part of the oil cistern; when it is unscrewed and inverted, the oil is poured into the reservoir through a small hole; by moving a small handle or lever, a short tube is made to cover this hole and prevent the oil from running out, and the reservoir is then screwed into its place, and the handle depressed

so as to uncover the hole and to allow the passage of the oil into the cistern. Within the perpendicular tube of the burner there is placed a smaller tube, and both are closed at bottom and open at the top; the space between these contains oil and the wick, stretched over a short tube which rises a little above the other tubes. The outer surface of the inner tube has a spiral groove formed round it; and a tooth in the ring or gallery entering this groove, when it is turned round, causes the tube and wick attached to it to ascend or descend, so as to regulate the flame. On account of the nature of the reservoir which contains the oil, a constant supply will be kept up at the proper level, both in the cistern and in the wick-tubes.

It has been mentioned that various forms are given to the Argand lamps. In those employed for the purpose of giving a general and diffused light, the reservoir of oil is circular, and surrounds the cistern and wick, and is nearly on a level with the latter; a ground-glass shade, which in the smaller lamps is frequently globular, and in larger ones rather flat, rests upon a groove.

The chemical Argand lamp is a very useful instrument comprising a reservoir of oil; an opening at which the oil is poured into it; a short copper chimney; a pinion by which motion is given to a rack, so as to raise or depress the wick; apertures to supply air; and a dish, in which the lamp stands, to retain any oil which drops from the reservoir. It will be seen, from the above description, that in the Argand lamp the wick, and consequently the flame also, is in the form of a hollow cylinder, through the interior of which a current of air is made to ascend, in order to afford a free supply of air to the interior as well as to the exterior of the flame; and thereby to ensure more perfect combustion and greater brilliancy of light than could be obtained either by the use of a single large wick, or by a series of small wicks arranged in a straight line. These objects are more perfectly attained by the addition of a glass chimney, which confines the air immediately surrounding the flame, and produces an upward current, which causes it to rise high above the wick. The principle is also extensively applied to gas-burners.. Mr. Hemmenway took out an American patent in 1841, for a means of avoiding the necessity of removing the oil-chamber when an Argand lamp is to be replenished with oil. The fountain or reservoir is to be supplied with oil by a short pipe at the top, which is hermetically closed by a leather valve and screw cap; and between the bottom of this reservoir and the pipe that conducts the oil to the burner is an air chamber, which is supplied with air by a tube passing up through the oil reservoir. This air is made one of the means of filling the vessel with oil.

Messrs. Bedington and Docker registered an improvement in 1849, whereby an Argand lamp is enabled to maintain a clear light for a greater number of hours than under ordinary circumstances. The central air-tube, instead of terminating, as in the usual Argand lamps, nearly on a level with the top edge of the perforated air-cone, is carried about half an inch higher, and has apertures made near its.upper end. The outer case is also prolonged at top to a similar extent, and is similarly perforated near the top. By this arrangement currents of air are directed through the apertures into the wick, just below the point of inflammation, and thus the oil is prevented from becoming thickened or carbonised at that spot, a result so likely to occur in the ordinary form of Argand.

In 1858 a new burner was patented, to produce steady flame and complete combustion without a glass chimney. A central ring of orifices is surrounded by an additional ring of lesser orifices, equidistant from the central row and from each other. The object is, that the outer row of jets may obviate flickering and smoking.

Many other improvements have from time to time been introduced in the Argand lamp; and our manufacturers, within the last few years, have shown how much external beauty as well as practical convenience may be imparted to these contrivances.

The name of Argand having become associated with the means of producing a bright light by a judicious arrangement of air-holes, it has been applied not only to lamps, but also to candles and furnaces. During more than forty years, attention has from time to time been directed to the possibility of producing Argand candles-that is, candles constructed on the Argand principle. As, in the Argand lamp, air is supplied within the circle of the flame, so it has been thought that if air could ascend through the wick of a candle, the flame produced would be more brilliant. Many varieties have been tried, and some of them patented; but none of them have yet become permanently and commercially successful.

The designation Argand Furnace has been lately given to an arrangement in which a stream of air is made to mingle with the inflammable gases in the furnace, but is previously divided into a number of minute streamlets by passing through small apertures. The principle has been known and partially acted on for a considerable time, but it was brought into a practical form a few years ago by Mr. Williams. Other contrivances, partaking more or less of the principle of the Argand lamp, are described under LIGHTS, ARTIFICIAL. ARGEII, a name sometimes applied by Homer to the whole body of Greeks assembled at Troy; it is derived, probably, from the inhabitants of Argos, who had even in those early times raised their city to considerable celebrity. Homer, indeed, employs the word Argos not

only to designate the name of a town, but also the whole Peloponnesus: Agamemnon is styled the sovereign of all Argos and the islands (See Strabo, viii. 369.) The capital of Agamemnon's kingdom of Argos, which certainly did not comprise all the Peloponnesus, was Mycenae. Homer often qualifies it with some epithet, as Achaiicum ('Iliad,' ix. 141), when Argos of the Peloponnesus is meant, and Pelasgicum when the Thessalian city or district of that name is intended. Strabo (viii. 372) tells us that in later times the word Argos in the Thessalian and Macedonian dialects signified a plain or field, and we may therefore perhaps consider it as having the same root with ager in the Latin language. What connection this has with the several cities named Argos, the geographer does not think proper to inform us, though he may perhaps intend us to infer that they were so called from being situated in a plain. Pausanias (viii. 7) mentions a plain (called the Tedíov ȧpydy) close to the mountain Artemisium, but we doubt if this has any reference to the use of the word Argos, of which we are here speaking. The early inhabitants of the Peloponnesian Argos and of the district around it were, we have good reason to believe, Pelasgi. (Strabo, viii. 371; Eurip. Orest.,' 931; Eschyl. 'Suppl.,' 268.) The arrival of Danaus from Egypt, according to tradition, caused their name to be changed to Danaï, a term that occurs in the Iliad,' but the mass of the population no doubt still remained the same. Eighty years after the Trojan war, or B.c. 1104, the invasion of the Peloponnesus by the Heraclide took place, and Argos, like most of the other cities of southern Greece, was obliged to submit to the Dorians. Still this was only a change of dynasty, and all the older Achæan inhabitants were not compelled to leave their country. From this time the names Argos and Argeii lost their more extensive signification; but the city Argos itself continued an important place under this new race. [ARGOLIS, ARGOS, and ACHEI, in the GEOG. DIVISION.]

ARGE'NTEUS CODEX, or Silver Book, the name given to a very curious manuscript, or rather fragment of a manuscript, containing the greater part of the Four Gospels in the Moso-Gothic language, preserved in the library at Upsala, in Sweden. It is believed to be a relic of the Gothic Bible, all or the greater part of which was translated by Ulphilas, bishop of those Goths who were settled in Mosia and Thrace, and who lived under the emperor Valens about A.D. 360. This curious fragment was discovered in the library of the abbey of Werden, in Westphalia. The leaves are of vellum, some purple, but the greater part of a violet colour; all the letters being of silver, except the initials, which are of gold. These letters, which are all capitals, appear not to have been written with the pen, but stamped or imprinted on the vellum with hot metal types, in the same manner as book-binders at present letter the backs of books. This copy is judged to be nearly as ancient as the time of Ulphilas, or at least not later than a century or two after.

Michaelis and one or two other learned men have opposed the current opinion, that the Silver Book contains part of Ulphilas's Gothic version, and have offered arguments to prove that it is rather a venerable fragment of some very ancient Francic Bible: but they have been confuted by Knittel and others. The letters used in the Gothic Gospels, being twenty-five in number, are formed, with slight variations, from the capitals of the Greek and Latin alphabets, and are believed to have been really the invention or application of Ulphilas. See the notes to Bishop Percy's 'Translation of Mallet's Northern Antiquities,' vol. i. p. 366.

Palimpsest fragments of this Gothic version of the Scriptures, though not in the silver character, have been since found in other places. Knittel printed a fragment, containing part of the Epistle to the Romans, which was discovered in the library at Wolfenbuttel: it was reprinted in 1763, by Professor Ihre; and again in the Appendix to Lye's Saxon Dictionary. In 1819, some further fragments were published by Angelo Mai and Car. Oct. Castillonei, in 4to, at Milan, containing small portions of Esdras and Nehemiah, parts of the 25th, 26th, and 27th chapters of St. Matthew, of St. Paul's Epistles to the Philippians, Titus, and Philemon, and of a homily and calendar; these were discovered in separate leaves in the Ambrosian library at Milan.

The Gothic Gospels of the Silver Book were first printed in types approaching to a fac-simile, by Junius, in 1665; again in common type at Stockholm, in 1671; by Mr. Lye at Oxford, in 4to, 1750, with a Gothic grammar prefixed; by Zahn, 4to, Weissenfels, 1805; by Massmann, 4to, Munich, 1834; by Gabelentz and Löbe (with a glossary and grammar, and the palimpsest fragments of Mai), 3 vols. 4to, Leips. 1836-47; and by Uppström, 4to, Upsala, 1854.

A 'Dissertation on the Argenteus Codex,' by Ericus Sotberg, printed at Stockholm, in 1752, contains two of its pages in fac-simile. Knittel and Mai have also engraved some of the palimpsest fragments which they respectively published.

ARGO, the ship, a southern constellation, the greater part of which, containing all the more important stars, is not visible in this country. It has one star of the first magnitude, CANOPUS (which see). The part of it which is visible in our latitude may be found in and above a line drawn through Orion's belt, and continued beyond Sirius. The star Cor Hydræ is just above the end of the mast, and the direction of the mast is that of a line passing through Regulus and Cor Hydræ. The latter comes on the meridian at six in the evening in the middle of May.

was an inlet or bay of the ocean running southward into the land, we may easily conceive how the ignorance of a previous age connected the Euxine with the waters of the ocean. When the Euxine was explored, so as to leave no doubt of its true character, ignorance and credulity merely transferred the same hypothesis to the Caspian. The wanderings of Io, as given in the Prometheus' of Eschylus, are a good sample of poetical geography, which may be compared with that of the Argonautic voyage.

Bryant, in his learned work on ancient mythology, considers this expedition of the Argonauts as one of those corrupt traditions in which the recollection of the Deluge, and the preservation of mankind in the ark, was long maintained. Jason, therefore, he believes to be the arkite deity, and the name of Argo to be connected with and derived from the ark itself. The reader will find this question discussed with great research and ingenuity in his 'Ancient Mythology;' but the author's prejudices in behalf of one favourite theory are so strong, that his arguments require to be examined with more than usual care. ARGOSIE, a ship of great burden, whether for merchandise or war. Shakspere, in his 'Merchant of Venice' (act i. scene 1), says—

"Your mind is tossing on the ocean,

There where your Argosies with portly sail,
Like signiors and rich burghers on the flood,
Or as it were the pageants of the sea,
Do over-peer the petty traffickers."

It is mentioned in the same sense by Chapman, Drayton, Beaumont and Fletcher, and other writers. In Rycaut's Maxims of Turkish Polity,' chap. xiv., it is said, "Those vast carracks called Argosies, which are so famed for the vastness of their burden and bulk, were corruptly so denominated from Ragosies;" that is, ships of Ragusa, a city and territory on the Gulf of Venice, then tributary to the Porte. We have no proof however that the Ragusan vessels were particularly large; and it seems more likely that the Argosie derived its name from the classical ship Argo. Indeed, Shakspere himself has hinted as much in the play just quoted, when he makes Gratiano, in allusion to Antonio's argosie, say (act iii. scene 2)

'We are the Jasons; we have won the fleece."

Sandys, in his Travels,' p. 2, applies the term argosie to a ship of force. Describing the boldness of pirates in the Adriatic, he observes, that from the timorousness of others, they "gather such courage that a little frigot will often not fear to venture on an argosie."

ARGUMENT, in astronomical tables, is the angle on which the tabulated quantity depends, and with which, therefore, in technical language, the table must be entered. If, for example, a table of the sun's declination were formed, corresponding to every degree, &c., of longitude, so that the longitude being known, the declination might be found opposite to it in the table, then the longitude would be made the argument of the declination.

ARIA. [AIR.]

ARIADNE, one of the group of small planets revolving between Mars and Jupiter. [ASTEROIDS.]

ARIADNE, according to Apollodorus, was the daughter of Minos and Pasiphaë. Having become enamoured of Theseus, she provided him with a sword with which he slew the Minotaur, and the thread clue by means of which he found his way out of the labyrinth. Theseus carried Ariadne with him from Crete to the island of Naxos, or Dia, where, according to Homer, she was killed by Artemis ('Odys.' xi. 324). But other accounts make him to have abandoned her there, after she had borne him twin sons, Oenopion and Stapylus. Dionysus (Bacchus), according to this version of the story, saw her, and, enchanted by her beauty, raised her to a place among the immortals, and made her his wife. Ariadne was a great favourite with the Greek artists, who represented in her the type of human female loveliness. She is usually seen crowned with ivy and fully draped. On vases, cameos, gems, &c., she is figured as meeting with or forsaken by Theseus; along with Dionysus in a chariot, or accompanied with Erotes, Bacchantes, &c. There is a very fine statue in the British Museum (Third Græco-Roman Saloon), of a female draped in a long tunic and peplus, and crowned with ivy, which is described in the official catalogue as a 'Libera, the female Bacchus, or perhaps Ariadne,' but which Müller ('Archäologie der Kunst,' § 388) without hesitation calls an Ariadne.

ARIANS, a name applied in common to all who entertain opinions concerning the relations between Jesus Christ and the Father similar to those entertained by Arius, although they have not always derived their notions from him. According to the second- oration of Athanasius against the Arians (§ 24), Eusebius of Nicomedia, Asterius, and Arius, agreed in the following opinion: God being willing to create the universe, and seeing that it could not be subject to the working of his almighty hand, made first a single being whom he called Son, or Logos, to be a link between God and the world, by whom the whole universe was created. (Compare Athanas. 'Orat. c. Arian.' i. § 5.) The Arians formed a more exalted idea of Christ than the Socinians and the modern Neologians, or Rationalists, in Germany. According to the Rationalists, Jesus was a sort of Socrates among the Jews, and Socrates was a Grecian Jesus. But the Arians did not deny that Christ, in the New Testament, was called God, and they ascribed to him a sort of divine dignity; but asserted that he had this dignity, not

by his own essence, but merely by the grace of God the Father. (Athanas. 'Orat. c. Arian. i. § 6.) The Arians fully admitted the incomprehensibility of God, and that Christians ought to pay divine. worship to Jesus Christ. This they proved from Christ's saying, "That all men should honour the Son, even as they honour the Father. He that honoureth not the Son, honoureth not the Father who hath sent him." (St. John, v. 23.) Hence the Arians were accused by Athanasius of idolatry, because, according to their own notions, they offered to a creature that tribute which belonged to the Creator alone. The Arians distinguished the Logos in God from the Logos improperly so called.

These were the characteristic doctrines of the strict Arians. But in the western part of the Roman empire, all adversaries of the doctrine of Athanasius, that the Son was homoousios, or of the same essence with the Father, were called Arians; although some of these opponents taught a doctrine which had already been propagated in the school of Origen, namely, that the Son was homoousios, or of similar essence. These, afterwards called semi-Arians, were first compelled, by the opposition of the Homoousiasts, to join the Arians, but, owing to the persecutions which they suffered from the strict Arians (who asserted the Son to be ἀνόμοιος κατ' ουσίαν, dissimilar in essence), they were driven back into the orthodox church. The party of Aëtius, and of his pupil, Eunomius, went a step farther than Arius, by asserting the comprehensibility of the divine essence, and by considering the precision of doctrine (doyμárov aкpíßeia) of chief importance in Christianity. The Antiochene church, under the Arian bishop Eudoxius, afforded an asylum to the ultra-Arian followers of Eunomius. The difference between Arians and semi-Arians became more evident from these extreme opinions, and contributed to the gradual assimilation of the latter to the orthodox church. This assimilation was easily effected, because the semi-Arians had constantly used an orthodox phraseology, which was taken by the people in an orthodox sense. According to Hilarius Pictaviensis, Contra Aurentium' (§ 6), the ears of the people were holier than the hearts of their priests. At Constantinople, however, a dogmatising spirit pervaded all ranks of society. Of this we have a graphic description in the Oratio de Deitate Filii et Spiritus Sancti,' by Gregorius of Nyssa (Opp. t. iii. p. 466). "The town is full of those who dogmatise concerning incomprehensible matters,—they are in the streets and markets, among the clothiers, money-changers, and victuallers. If you ask any one how much you have to pay, they dogmatise about being begotten and not being begotten. If you ask the price of bread, the reply is, 'The Father is greater than the Son, and the Son is subordinate to the Father.' If you ask, 'Is the bath ready?' the answer is, 'The Son is created from nothing."" Compare Neander's Kirchengeschichte,' b. ii. pp. 767-904.) [ARIUS, in BIOG. Div.]

AŘICINE. [CINCHONA, ALKALOIDS OF.]

ARIES (constellation), the Ram, is the first constellation of the ancient zodiac. The sign of the zodiac, so called, including the first thirty degrees of the ecliptic, reckoning from the vernal equinox, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, now begins in the constellation Pisces.

The Greek mythology makes Aries to be the commemoration of the golden fleece, in quest of which the Argonautic expedition was undertaken. Owing to the difficulty of separating any account of discussions relating to the origin of this constellation in particular, from the general description of the ZODIAC, we refer to the latter term for further mythological elucidation.

This constellation is surrounded by Cetus, Taurus, Perseus, AndroIn the horns meda, and Pisces, the first of which is directly below it. are two stars, a and B, the only two of any note, which are near together, and may be found by continuing the line drawn from Procyon through Aldebaran; or, by continuing the line drawn through the pole star, and e Cassiopeia, the nearest to the Great Bear of the five. These stars (a and B Arietis) are on the meridian at midnight in the middle of October.

The following are the principal stars in this constellation:
No. in Catalogue

ARIETTA in music (the diminutive of the Italian word aria), a short air.

ARIMA'NES and AREIMA'NIOS are Greek corruptions of the Persian name Ahriman or Aheriman, which, according to the ancient doctrine of Zoroaster, is the appellation of the author of evil and the opponent of Ormuze, who is the author of good. The general form of the word, as it occurs in the original text of the Zend-Avesta, is Anra Mainyu (pronounce Ahroman), a compound term, the meaning of which might be expressed by perhaps an etymological equivalent in the Greek dyploμevns, "hostile, of evil disposition." The Zend original of the word Ormuzd is Ahuro-Mazdão, coming near the forms Oro

66

mazes and Oromasdes, under which the name occurs in Greek authors (for example, Plutarch, 'De Iside et Osir.' p. 660, ed. Steph.) In the Sanscrit paraphrase of a portion of the Zend-Avesta by Neriosengh, the name Ahur-Mazdão is interpreted the king of great wisdom." This interpretation is adopted by M. Eugène Burnouf, Commentaire sur le Yaçna, vol. i. p. 72, &c., and Dr. H. Brockhaus, in his 'Heiligen Schriften Zoroasters,' Leipzig, 1840. The two individual beings, Ormuzd and Ahriman were, according to the Zend-Avesta,' the offspring of Zeruane-Akerene, the indefinite and impersonal divine substance and cause of all existence. Both were primarily equal in intellect and power; but Ormuzd was, from the beginning, pure, good, and luminous; while Ahriman was dark and wicked, and bent on destruction and mischief. Ormuzd is represented as the creator of the world: Ahriman constantly counteracts the designs of his goodness. Ormuzd created the six Amshaspands, or ministering angels of good: Ahriman, in opposition, created the six Deeves, to be subservient to his evil purposes. "I produced a place of delight," says Ormuzd, who relates the matter to the holy Zoroaster; "for had I not, the whole inhabited world would have gone to Airyana-vaejo,” (wo nirgends geschaffen was eine Moglichkeit;) "but this which I created first was not the best. The second was by the man-ruining Agra-maingus." This second creation was full of death, where there are great snakes, ten winter months, and only two summer months. They create in turns different and opposed places of delight and suffering, but they all appear to have reference to known existing countries. In the one division is found unbelief, labour, and poverty; in the other, beautiful towns, with banners, and full of houses. This is from the first chapter of the 'Vendidad.' The subsequent chapters contain further conversations, with moral precepts and directions for prayers, by which" praising the highest purity," the Deevas are to be expelled, adding, "Long sleep, men, is not fitting for you. Turn towards the three good things, good thinking, speaking, and acting; and from the three bad things, evil thinking, speaking, and acting." Thus Ormuzd is always taking the lead by pure and good productions, and Ahriman follows, sowing the seeds of natural and moral evil in the new creations. Mithra, who is of a later introduction, was the mediator between Ormuzd and his creatures. The struggle of the two deities will, according to the doctrine of Zoroaster, continue during 12,000 years, after the lapse of which Ormuzd will defeat his opponent. Ahriman himself will then become a convert to truth and goodness, and a new world, happier and better than the present, will be created. Plutarch gives similar details, but fixes the period of contest at 3000 years.

The Persian doctrine of the two opposite principles was known to Aristotle, who, according to Diogenes Laertius (De Vit. Philos. Prom. 2), distinguished them as ἀγαθὸς δαίμων and κακὸς δαίμων. The most ancient foreign authors that have given some interesting details regarding the doctrine of Zoroaster are the Armenian chroniclers of the fifth century, especially Eliseus and Esnac. See Eliseus's History of Vartan,' &c., translated by C. F. Neumann, London, 1830, 4to, and an extract from the Chronicle of Esnac, in the appendix to P. Aucher's Grammar, Armenian and English,' Venice, 1819, 8vo, p. 198, &c.; M. Anquetil du Perron, the Zend-Avesta;' but his translation, though valuable at the time, has been found too loose and too often incorrect to allow of the true doctrines of the ancient Persian faith to be drawn from it. Westergaard has published the text of the 'Zend-Avesta,' Copenhagen, 1854; and Dr. F. Spiegel, a translation in German of the Vendidad,' which is a portion of it, in Leipzig, 1852. ARIO'SO, in music (an Italian adjective, airy), used to signifyin the manner of an air,' as contradistinguished from recitative. When applied to instrumental music, it denotes a sustained, a vocal style. It is sometimes, but improperly, used substantively.

ARISTOCRACY, according to its etymology, means a government of the best or most excellent (apiσTO). This name, which, like optimates in Latin, was applied to the educated and wealthy class in the state, soon lost its moral and obtained a purely political sense: so that aristocracy came to mean merely a government of a few, the rich being always the minority of a nation. When the sovereign power does not belong to one person, it is shared by a number of persons either greater or less than half the community: if this number is less than half, the government is called an aristocracy; if it is greater than half, the government is called a democracy. Since however women and children have in all ages and countries (except in cases of hereditary succession) been excluded from the exercise of the sovereign power, the number of persons enumerated in estimating the form of the government is confined to the adult males, and does not comprehend every individual of the society, like a census of population. Thus, if a nation contains 2,000,000 souls, of which 500,000 are adult males, if the sovereign power is lodged in a body consisting of 500 or 600 persons, the government is an aristocracy; if it is lodged in a body consisting of 400,000 persons, the government is a democracy, though this number is considerably less than half the entire population. It is also to be remarked, that where there is a class of subjects or slaves who are excluded from all political rights and all share in the sovereignty, the numbers of the dominant community are alone taken into the account in determining the name we are to give to the form of the government. Thus, Athens at the time of the Peloponnesian war had conquered a number of independent communities in the islands of the Agean Sea and on

the coasts of Asia Minor and Thrace, which were reduced to different degrees of subjection, but were all substantially dependent on the Athenians. Nevertheless, as every adult mal Athenian citizen had a share in the sovereign power, the government Athens was called, not an aristocracy, but a democracy. Again, the henians had a class of slaves, four or five times more numerous than the whole body of citi zens, of all ages and sexes; yet as a majority of the citizens possessed the sovereign power, the government was called a democracy. In like manner, the government of South Carolina in the United States of America is called a democracy, because every adult freeman, who is a native or has obtained the rights of citizenship by residence, has a vote in the election of members of the legislative assembly, although the number of the slaves in that state exceeds that of the free population. An aristocracy therefore may be defined to be a form of government in which the sovereign power is divided among a number of persons less than half the adult males of the entire community where there is not a class of subjects or slaves, or the dominant community where there is a class of subjects or slaves.

Lord Brougham, in his 'Political Philosophy,' vol. ii., gives a somewhat different definition. He says, "Where the supreme power in any state is in the hands of a portion of the community, and that portion is so constituted that the rest of the people cannot gain admittance, or can only gain admittance with the consent of the select body, the government is an aristocracy; where the people at large exercise the supreme power it is a democracy. Nor does it make any difference in these forms of government, that the ruling body exercises its power by delegation to individuals or to smaller bodies. Thus, a government would be aristocratic in which the select body elected a chief to whom a portion or even the whole of its power should be intrusted." He illustrates this by historical examples, and it is perhaps more in accordance with the general acceptation of the word than the previous definition. England can scarcely be termed an aristocratic government, though far less than the half of its adults have any acknowledged power.

Sometimes the word aristocracy is used to signify, not a form of government, but a class of persons in a state. In this sense it is applied not merely to the persons composing the sovereign body in a state of which the government is aristocratical, but to a class or political party in any state, whatever be the form of its government. When there is a privileged order of persons in a community having a title or civil dignity, and when no person, not belonging to this body, is admitted to share in the sovereign power, this class is often called the aristocracy, and the aristocratic party or class; and all persons not belonging to it are called the popular party, or, for shortness, the people. Under these circumstances many rich persons would not belong to the aristocratic class; but if a change takes place in the constitution of the state, by which the disabilities of the popular order are removed, and the rich obtain a large share of the sovereign power, then the rich become the aristocratic class, as opposed to the middle ranks and the poor. This may be illustrated by the history of Florence, in which state the nobili popolani, or popular nobles (as they were called), at one time were opposed to the aristocratic party, but by a change in the constitution became themselves the chiefs of the aristocratic, and the enemies of the popular party. In England, at the present time, aristocracy, as the name of a class, is generally applied to the rich, as opposed to the rest of the community: sometimes, however, it is used in a narrower sense, and is restricted to the nobility, or members of the peerage.

The word aristocracy, when used in this last sense, may be applied to an order of persons in states of any form of government. Thus, the privileged orders in France from the reign of Louis XIV. to the revolution of 1789, have often been called the aristocracy, although the government was during that time purely monarchical; so a class of persons has by many historians been termed the aristocracy in aristocratical republics, as Venice and Rome before the admission of the plebeians to equal political rights; and in democratical republics, as Athens, Rome in later times, and France during a part of her revolu tion. It would therefore be an error if any person were to infer from the existence of an aristocracy (that is, an aristocratical class) in a state, that the form of government is therefore aristocratical, though in fact that might happen to be the case.

The use of the word aristocracy to signify a class of persons never occurs in the Greek writers, with whom it originated, nor (as far as we are aware) is it ever employed by Machiavelli and the revivers of political science since the middle ages: among modern writers of all parts of Europe this acceptation has, however, now become frequent and established.

The word oligarchy is likewise of Greek origin, and it means, according to its etymology, a government of a few. By the Greek historians it is used as synonymous with aristocracy, nor did it convey any offensive meaning; among modern nations, however, it generally has an opprobrious force, and when used, it commonly implies that the writer or speaker disapproves of the government or dislikes the class of persons to which he applies that name.

There is scarcely any political term which has a more vague and fluctuating sense than aristocracy; and the historical or political student should be careful to watch with attention the variations in its meaning: observing, first, whether it means a form of government or a