extra five guineas at their admission, one guinea being paid over to each lecturer. in courts, appear to have been the only advocates, were called by writ from the Inns of Court, the writ commanding the person to whom it was addressed to take on himself the dignity of the coif, being only The opinions of the bar are very much divided as to the utility of issued at the discretion of the crown, and generally as a matter of these lectures and studentships. The keeping of terms at an Inn of favour. This continues to be the case at the present day, although Court constituted the merely formal part of the preparation for the practically the nomination of serjeants is in the hands of the Chief bar. It was not unusual for a student to pass three years in the Justice of the Court of Common Pleas. In process of time it became chambers of a gentleman in practice, and in this way to obtain an convenient and necessary to enable utter barristers to practise; but actual knowledge of law, and qualify himself for the actual practice of some time after they began to act as advocates in the superior courts, his intended profession. If three years were not always given to the terms upon which they were called to the bar, and allowed to study, a lesser period must have been passed in statu pupillari, there plead, were prescribed by the Privy Council. Thus an order of council being no other mode of acquiring the practical knowledge thus obregulating the proceedings of all the Inns of Court in this respect, tained. It is admitted universally that the lectures are not intended dated Easter Term, 1574, and signed by Sir Nicholas Bacon as lord or expected to give this practical knowledge of the profession, and it keeper, and several lords of council, directs that "none be called to the is contended by those who have had the most ample means and opporutter bar but by the ordinary council of the house (that is, the Inn), in tunity of forming an opinion, that a knowledge of the law is only to their general ordinary councils in term time; also, that none shall be be gained by a close, continuous, and uninterrupted study, and that utter barristers without having performed a certain number of moot-lectures can be of little, if of any use, in directing the student in ings; also, that none shall be admitted to plead in any of the courts at his course. As yet, no practical good is known to have resulted Westminster, or to sign pleadings, unless he be a reader, bencher, or from the new system, which, however, must still be considered exfive years' utter barrister, and continuing that time in exercises of perimental. learning; also, that none shall plead before justices of assize unless allowed in the courts of Westminster, or allowed by the justices of assize." (Dugdale's Origines Juridiciales.') This appears to be the last instance of the immediate interference of the Privy Council with the arrangements of the Inns of Court respecting calls to the bar. In the reigns of James I. and Charles I., the judges and benchers of the several Inns conjointly made orders on this subject, and, since the Commonwealth, the authority to call persons to the degree of barrister-at-law has been tacitly relinquished to the benchers of the different societies, and is now considered to be delegated to them from the judges of the superior courts. In conformity with this view of the subject, the practice has been, in the several cases of a rejection of applications to be called to the bar which have lately happened, to appeal to the judges, who either confirm or reverse the decision of the benchers. From the history of the system, however, it would appear as if the judges themselves possessed only a delegated authority from the crown. Previously to a general arrangement made by all the Inns of Court in 1762, the qualifications required for being called to the bar varied extremely, and no uniform rule was observed at the different houses. In the first year of the reign of James I. it was solemnly ordered by a regulation, signed by Sir Edward Coke, Sir Francis Bacon, and other distinguished names, that no person should be admitted into any of the Inns of Court who was not a gentleman by descent. Other regulations were occasionally made, as to the length of standing required, and the number of persons to be called at each time, which were often absurd and inconsistent with each other. The greatest inconvenience, however, arose from the absence of uniformity in the practice of the different Inns, as to the qualifications which they respectively required. To remedy this evil, it was determined, in 1762, by the concurrence of all the Inns of Court, to adopt a common set of rules for their guidance in this respect; and under these rules, which were slightly modified by the different Inns of Court from time to time, the only qualifications required, until quite recently, were, that a person should be twentyone years of age, and have kept twelve terms, by eating the number of dinners during term necessary to constitute keeping that term. The candidate must thus have been three years a member of the society to which he belonged, and during that time he was required to go through certain formalities, called keeping exercises, which meant nothing. No knowledge of law was required; but the candidate must have been able to write his name, and either to read writing or to recollect some words of his exercise. By an order made by the benchers of the Inner Temple, in Trinity Term, 1829, every person proposed for admission to that house must, previously to his admission, have undergone an examination by two barristers appointed by the bench, who were required to certify whether the individual was proficient in classical attainments and the general subjects of a liberal education.' This regulation was never adopted at any of the other three Inns of Court; it was felt, or supposed to operate, as a restraint upon the resort of students to the Inner Temple, and to create a consequent diminution of its funds. The rule was abandoned in 1847. The expense of being called to the bar amounts to between 801. and 90%., exclusive of the three years' commons and the admission fees supra. In order to qualify a person for the bar in Ireland, it is necessary that he should have kept six terms at one of the four Inns of Court in London, and six terms at the King's Inn in Dublin. After a student has kept the necessary number of terms, he may be admitted to practise under the bar, as it is termed. Persons thus practising the common law are termed special pleaders; those following a similar course in the courts of Chancery, equity draftsmen. They must take out an annual certificate, like attorneys, and are generally paid much smaller fees than barristers; but they can charge their fees and recover them by action, which a barrister is unable to do. Some of these practisers under the bar, as well as members of the bar, devote themselves to one branch of practice in chambers, and are thence called conveyancers. [COUNSEL; INNS OF COURT.] BARRISTER. In Scotland, there was (if we except public Notaries) till modern times but one order of law practitioners. They had various names,-procurator, advocate, prolocutor, forespeaker: of which the two former were the most frequent, and the first is to this day the judicial style of the advocates of the college of justice, the advocate of the church of Scotland, and the fiscals and practitioners of the local courts. They were at once the chamber-counsel, the barrister, and the attorney of their clients; and, in the common law courts at least, all pleaded within the bar. This continued to be the case till the institution of the Court of Session in 1532, when it was enacted “that nane advocat nor procuratour within the bar stand to pley, bot passe outwith with the partie, except the king's advocat:"-an enactment which, being limited to the Court of Session and inferior courts, is unknown in the Court of Justiciary, where to this day, both at Edinburgh, and on the circuit, all plead as of old within the bar. We soon afterwards find in the records a new class of law practitioners under the name of writers, acting below the bar; but against them the censures of the court were constantly proclaimed, and they were ordered to be extruded from the court; and we also find that, by the Secretary of State's injunctions in 1594, the writers to the signet were forbidden to act as agents, that is, attorneys or solicitors in court. The writers, however, had taught division of labour in the legal profession; and the business of the Court of Session accordingly was soon divided between the advocates and their clerks-all except whom were, by act of Sederunt, 13th July, 1596, prohibited to act as agents, and this order was renewed by statute 1672, c. 16, s. 31, and by act of Sederunt, 26th February, 1678. By a bye-law of the writers to the signet, also, December, 1676, any member of that body who should act as an agent was made liable to be prosecuted. Nevertheless, the writers to the signet came ultimately to act as agents; and in the course of last century, a third class of agents was established under the name of solicitors before the supreme courts. These several classes of agents can act in court only below the bar, whereas the advocates are not confined to the bar, but remain undivested (except by usage) of their ancient right to act both as counsel and attorney. Thus far as to the Court of Session. In regard to the local courts, the resident practitioners are styled procurators, except at Aberdeen, where, agreeably to an act of court passed by Mr. Sheriff Crombie in 1633 (perhaps the first local-court regulation in Scotland subsequently to the establishment of the Court of Session), the practitioners are admitted to practise (as in the Court of Session) as "advocates and and the procurators of the other local courts, act, as of old, in every branch of juridical business. They are admitted by the court before which they intend to practise, and cannot act before any other county court. In 1852, the four societies agreed upon a new set of rules, by which the previous rules were almost entirely re-enacted. A student is now compelled to attend two of the five courses of lectures delivered at the halls of the Inns of Court, during one whole year; the year being divided for this purpose into three educational terms. He may, how-procurators," and are usually styled advocates in Aberdeen. These, ever, avoid this attendance by submitting himself to an examination in law. Lectures have been instituted and lecturers appointed, and a body called a Council of Legal Education' created. One studentship of fifty guineas per annum, tenable for three years, may be conferred by this council on the student who passes the best examination, at the general examinations, which are held at the beginning of every educational term. As the examination is voluntary, this is the inducement held out to students to offer themselves; besides which, two of the terms of successful students may be dispensed with, and they may thus, and not otherwise, take precedence at the bar of men otherwise of their own standing. Students, it may be added, are now charged an The advocates of the College of Justice, who form the Bar of Scotland, are not restricted to the Court of Session, but are entitled to act in every court in the kingdom (except where specially excluded by statute), and they go on circuit with the superior criminal court; but no practising member of the bar is permanently resident in any of the provincial towns; and there is not yet, therefore, any provincial bar in Scotland, as in England. The advocates of the College of Justice form an incorporation called the Faculty of Advocates. All matters relating to the body are regulated by the vote of the whole members, and there is no governing council resembling that of the benchers of the English Inns of Court. The president of the body is called the Dean of Faculty, and is elected by general vote. He has precedence in court after the Lord Advocate for the time being, and before the Solicitor-General. No other precedence is recognised, except that of seniority. But by a recent resolution the Faculty has resolved of courtesy to permit those who have held the offices of Lord Advocate and Solicitor-General to have precedence next after the Lord Advocate, Dean of Faculty, and Solicitor-General for the time. But only the actual Lord Advocate and Solicitor-General plead within the bar. The Faculty regulates all matters connected with admission to the bar. Till the institution of the Court of Session in the beginning of the 16th century, no course or exhibition of legal learning appears to have been required to qualify for the legal profession in Scotland. At first indeed no legal qualification was necessary even for the Scottish bench. The first advocates were mostly, if not all, ecclesiastics, conversant with the canon and civil laws; and, till the Union with England, a knowledge of these laws was the chief requisite to admission to the Scottish bar. Indeed, till the above era, there was no provision for the study of the law in Scotland, except the canon and civil law chairs of the universities; and accordingly it was usual till our own day to prepare for the Scottish bar at some one of the foreign colleges; of which those of France and Italy were the most frequented, till the lustre of the Cujacian school in the Low Countries, aiding the connection which arose between Scotland and them at the Reformation, drew the student thither. In 1722, however, a chair of Scots Law was erected at Edinburgh; and there are now several law professorships in the different universities of Scotland. From the year 1610, it has been imperative on all candidates for admission to the bar in Scotland to pass an examination in law. In the year 1750 it was required that this examination should be both upon the civil law and the law of Scotland. A further extension of the course of study was made in 1854, when an examination, or the production of other evidence of proficiency in several branches of general learning, was directed, prior to the examination in law. These preliminary qualifications are as follows: The degree of M A. of any Scottish university, of the University of London, or of the Queen's University in Ireland, or the degree of B.A. of the English universities, or such degree of a foreign university as may be evidence of the same amount of scholarship as the degree of M.A. in Scotland. In the event of the candidate not having graduated as above, he must undergo an examination on the following subjects and books,— 1. Latin.-Cicero de Oratore,' and the 'Odes' of Horace, or in place of Horace, the first six books of the Eneid.' 2. Greek.-First six books of the Iliad,' or Herodotus's 'History.' In place of the Greek, the candidate may select any two of the modern languages subjoined: German.-Schiller's 'Geschichte des Abfalls des Vereinigten Niederlande, &c.,' and Schiller's Historical Dramas.' French.-Guizot's 'Histoire de la Civilisation en Europe,' and a Satire of Boileau. 3. Logic. Whately's 'Logic.' In place of Logic the candidate may select 4. Ethical and Metaphysical Philosophy.-Reid's Works by Hamilton, and Sir J. Mackintosh's 'Dissertation on Progress of Ethical Philosophy.' A year after passing this examination, the candidate may present himself for examination in law. But for a year prior to the examination in law, he must not have engaged in any trade, business, or profession, either on his own account or in the employment of another. And he must have attended, during at least one session, a class of civil law in a university, and during another session a class of Scots law in a university; and attended during one session a class of conveyancing, or during a second session, either of the classes first mentioned; and lastly, he must have attended a course of lectures on medical jurisprudence. The examination on civil law is appointed to be on the Institutes of Justinian,' with Warnkoenig Inst. Jus. Rom. Privat.;' and the title of the Pandects ‘De div. reg. juris' (lib. 1. tit. vii.) with the Commentary contained in the 45th title of the 4th book of Bankton's 'Institute of the Law of Scotland.' The examination on the Scottish law is appointed to be on Bell's 'Principles.' The fees on admission amount to about 350.; the greater part of which goes to the support of the magnificent library belonging to the Faculty. Among the curious trifles of which the memory is still preserved by antiquaries, is the right claimed by the Scottish bar to remain covered in the presence of the court. Thus we find that Alexander Seton, afterwards Lord Chancellor of Scotland, "made his public lesson of the law before James VI., the Senators of the College of Justice, and Advocates present, in the Chapel Royal of Holyrood House, in his lawyer-gown and four-nooked cap (as lawyers used to pass their tryals in the Universities abroad), to the great applause of the king and all present; after which he was received by the College of Justice as ane lawyer.' And so, when King Charles removed Oliphant, King's Advocate, from the bench, and issued an ordinance that no officer of state should for the future have the place of an ordinary lord there, the Court of Session passed an act of Sederunt, acknowledging the right of his assistant and successor, Hope, King's Advocate, to plead covered. This, it is indeed said, was a privilege granted to Hope personally, in consideration of his having a son, or as some say two sons, and others, who not content with one or two, roundly assert three sons on the bench, who like the other judges sat with the hat on. But the fact is, Hope had no son on the bench when the act of Sederunt referred to was passed, nor for six years afterwards; and the acknowledgment then made was renewed to Sir Thomas Nicholson, King's Advocate, with other known privileges of the office of King's Advocate. We therefore take the act of Sederunt to contain recognition of a right common to the whole faculty, and made to the King's Advocate as the head of the body under the bench. That the judges wore their hats on the bench till recent times is certain; and at admissions to the bar the hat is to this day placed on the bar of the court in assertion of the right of the candidate. A general parity indeed prevails between the bench and bar: the King's Advocate and others were long members of both bench and bar; and in former times, when the judges were removable at pleasure, if a judge was removed from the bench he resumed his practice at the bar. This, for example, President Balfour did, on his removal from the chair. BARROW. [TUMULUS.] BARTER, a rule of Arithmetic, introduced into books which teach rules without principles, but which, though a very necessary and usual application of arithmetic, would be too obvious a consequence to be introduced into any system of demonstrative arithmetic. It means the exchanging of goods against goods, not against money, and, as might be supposed, the rule is the following: "Find the value of that commodity whose quantity is given; then find what quantity of the other at the rate proposed you may have for the same money, and it will be the answer required." (Bonnycastle's 'Arithmetic.') Thus, to find how many oranges at 2 a penny should be given for 150 apples at 3 a penny, find how much money 150 apples cost at 3 a penny, namely 50 pence, and find how many oranges can be bought for 50 pence at 2 a penny, namely 100. BARTER. When one commodity is exchanged directly for another, without the employment of any instrument of exchange which shall determine the value of the merchandise, the transaction is called Barter. All trade resolves itself into an exchange of commodities; but the commercial exchangers of one commodity for another effect their exchanges by a money-payment, determined by a market-value. This is a Sale. Swift, in his attack upon Wood's halfpence, which he considered as destructive of the money-standard of value, says, "I see nothing left us but to barter our goods, like the wild Indians, with each other." The general evils of such a state are obvious; and they create dishonest attempts in one exchanger to cheat the other. The North American Indians obtain a few of the comforts and luxuries of civilised life by exchanging skins for manufactured articles. The Indians meet the traders: each man divides his skins into lots, which have a relative value to each other, as that two otter skins are equal to one beaver. For one lot he wants a gun, or a looking-glass, or a blanket, or an axe. The trader has the articles to give the Indian in exchange. Twenty beaver-skins are given for a gun; the gun costs a pound in Birmingham; the beaver-skins are worth more than twenty times the amount in London. If the Indians were brought into more general contact with the exchangers of civilised life, they would regulate their exchanges by a money-standard, and would obtain a fairer value for their skins. The term barter seems to have been derived from the languages of southern Europe: baratar, Spanish; barattáre, Italian,-which signify to cheat as well as to barter; hence, also, our word Barratry. The want of a standard of value in all transactions of barter gives occasion to that species of overreaching which prevails from an ignorance of the real principles of trade, by which all exchangers are benefited through an exchange. The examples of barter, however, without any reference to some standard of value, become more and more uncommon, as the If the examination is successfully passed, a title of the Pandects is commercial intercourse of mankind advances. A skin of corn, or a assigned to the candidate as the subject of a thesis in Latin. Unfor- stone vessel of corn, among some of the Indian tribes, is established as tunately it is not required that the thesis should be actually, as it is a standard of value; councils are held to determine the rate of exnominally, of the candidate's own composition, and this is con- change; and a beaver-skin is thus held to be worth so many more sequently, what no other part of the examination is, a mere formality.skins of corn than a blanket. This is an approach to a standard of When the thesis has been approved, the candidate is presented to the value which almost takes the transaction out of the condition of being Court of Session, by which he is formally admitted as an advocate. a barter. In the trade carried on between Russia and China, the ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. L 39 exchanges of merchandise are directly effected, but the comparative BARTHOLOMEW, HOSPITAL OF ST. [HOSPITALS.] BA'RYTON, or BARITONE, from Bapus, heavy, grave, and Tovòs, tone, the male voice, the compass of which is between that of the tenor and the base. Dr. Bennati, in his 'Recherches sur la Mécanisme de la Voix Humaine,' applies a new term, baritenor, to this voice, which is much to be preferred to the above, for that, according to its etymological meaning, would seem to imply a low rather than a high base. BARYTON is the name of an instrument similar to the viol da Gamba [VIOL DA GAMBA], invented in 1700, but now entirely disused. Haydn composed no less than 163 pieces for the baryton, or baritono, which was the favourite instrument of his patron, Prince Nicola Esterhazy. BASCINET, BASINET, or BASNET, was a light helmet, so called from its resemblance to a basin. It was introduced about the time of Edward I. and replaced the chapet-de-fer, being worn commonly with the nasal, which however disappears after this reign. Finchet, says Grose (it should be Fauchet, 'Origines des Chevaliers, Armoiries, et Héraux,' 8vo, Paris, 1606, p. 42 b.), supposes the bascinet to have been a lighter sort of helmet that did not cover the face, and says he finds that the knights often exchanged their helmets for bascinets when much fatigued, and wishing to ease and refresh themselves, at a time when they could not with propriety go unarmed. An example of this kind, copied from a brass in Minster Church, Sheppey, of the time of Edward II. is appended. Bascinets were worn in the reigns of Edwards II. and III. and Richard II. by most of the English infantry, as may be repeatedly seen in the rolls of Parliament and other public records. In the reign of Richard II. a novelty in the form of the bascinet was introduced: it was then furnished with a species of moveable visor, a ventaille, bavière, or visière, as it was indifferently called, of which an example, copied from Sir S. Meyrick's 'Engraved Illustrations of Ancient Arms and Armour,' is given below, together with one when it had resumed its simpler form, of the time of Henry V. copied from one in Sir S. Meyrick's collection. The form is panache or plume, which was introduced as a crest in the time of Henry V. (Grose, Treatise on Ancient Armour; Meyrick, Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour; Planché, History of British Costume.) BASE. The name base is applied in chemistry to those elements or groups of elements which combine with halogens or with acids to form, in inorganic chemistry, salts, or, in organic chemistry, bodies analogous to salts. As it appears that every two elements may combine together, it follows that the basicity of an element is nothing absolute, but wholly relative to the other element or elements present. Thus, in one binary compound an element may be basic to another element, while in another compound the first element may be halogenous to a third. This being the case even with binary compounds, bodies which contain more than two elements show this ambiguity to a greater extent; for in such cases a body which is basic to a second may, when combined with a third, form a compound which is halogenous to a fourth. There are no separate terms for compound bases and simple or elementary ones, corresponding to the terms halogen and acid, employed in distinguishing simple and complex base-combiners. But although no absolute line of demarcation between basic bodies and acids or halogens exists, yet in compounds resulting from the union of the two, it is generally possible to determine which function is exercised by each of the elements or groups of elements. This can only be done by analogy: by comparing such compounds with others, the functions of whose constituents are assumed as known. Thus, if in hydrochloric acid (HCl) we admit the hydrogen to be basic, then when zinc dissolves in hydrochloric acid, the zinc, in the chloride of zinc formed, must occupy the same position and perform the same function towards the chlorine, as did the hydrogen which it has expelled-that is, it must be basic. Again, on treating nitrate of silver with the so-formed chloride of zinc, the silver displaces the zinc to form chloride of silver, and the zinc the silver to form nitrate of zinc. Hence, the silver of chloride of silver stands in the same relation to the chlorine as that which was maintained by the zinc, and therefore also by the hydrogen; it is therefore basic. Moreover, the formation of nitrate of zinc shows that in this latter body the zinc and nitric acid are related to one another in the same manner as the silver and chlorine in the chloride of silver, the two metals having simply changed places. By insisting upon the symmetry of the recompositions which occur in analogous interchanges, some chemists have been led to the symbolisations AgNO, and ZnNO, (mutatis mutandis for other oxygen salts), instead of those usually employed, AgONO, and ZnOÑO,. [SALT.] The electrolysis of compound bodies by a voltaic current furnishes us with a comparison between the unknown functions of the constituents of one compound, and those of another in which such functions are admitted as known. If a piece of zinc and one of copper be immersed in a vessel (1) of hydrochloric acid, the zinc alone decompores the acid, evolving hydrogen. On attaching by metallic wires the two plates in (1) with two platinum plates immersed in a second vessel (2) of hydrochloric acid, chlorine is liberated at the platinum plate connected with the copper, hydrogen at that connected with the zinc. If now, instead of hydrochloric acid, we place in vessel (2) another compound liquid and find that it is decomposed, it is clear that the constituents which appear at the two platinum plates are related to one another, as are the chlorine and hydrogen of the hydrochloric acid. On the electrolysis of a compound body, therefore, the substance which separates at the plate in connection with the copper is halogenous or acid, that at the plate connected with the zinc, basic. Since now the plate connected with the zinc is the negative, and the one connected with the copper the positive pole, the terms electropositive and electro-negative may, from the voltaic point of view, be substituted for basic, and halogenous or acid. Since dilute sulphuric acid is the acid most usually employed to be decomposed in the exciting cell, the products of decomposition in the decomposing cell are strictly the analogues of the products of the decomposition of dilute sulphuric acid when placed in the same decomposing cell; these are hydrogen and oxygen. But whatever acid be employed in the exciting cell, the same electrolytical products appear at the two poles in the decomposition cell, when the same substance is decomposed. The determination by electrolysis of the relative basicity of the elements of a compound, is sometimes complicated by secondary recompositions effected by the re-actions of those separated elements upon the original body decomposed, sometimes wholly frustrated by the resistance to the passage of the current. If metallic copper be placed in a cold solution of chloride of gold, the whole of the gold may be deposited in the metallic state, and its place be taken by the copper, chloride of copper being formed. If metallic iron be placed in the so-formed chloride of copper, copper is deposited and chloride of iron produced. Hence under these conditions copper is more basic than gold, and iron more basic than copper towards chlorine. When metals are compared in this way with one another in regard to their basicity, almost the same order is found to prevail whatever electro-negative constituent is present, and it is therefore possible to construct a list of the metals arranged according to their basicity. Thus in the following table the most strongly basic Such a list, however, does not give the relative basic positions of these elements with infallibility. The physical conditions under which the elements are present, and the nature of the possible compounds which may result, influence their order. Thus, although sodium may decompose the oxide of iron at one temperature, iron decomposes the oxide of sodium at a higher one. For further information on this subject, see CHEMICAL AFFINITY. Those salts which do not result from the direct combination of a halogen with a metal, but from the union of compounds of the nonmetallic elements with metals, are usually supposed to contain the metals in combination with a portion of the non-metallic constituents of the salt. In such cases the group containing the metal is the base. The bases resulting from the union of oxygen with the metals have been most fully examined. Sulphur, selenium, and a few other nonmetallic elements, also form bases when combined with metals. According to the solubility of the metallic oxides in water the metals which they contain are called the metals of the alkalies, of the alkaline earths, and of the heavy metals. The oxides of potassium and sodium are accordingly alkalis; those of barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, the alkaline earths; while the remaining oxides, those of the heavy metals are almost absolutely insoluble. Metals may be basic when in combination with a certain proportion of oxygen, and acid when combined with a larger quantity. This is the case with iron, manganese, chromium, and others. Sometimes one and the same stage of oxidation of a metal may be basic to an acid, and acid towards a base: such are the oxides of aluminium, zinc, and tin. Antimony and arsenic, which occupy an intermediate position between the metallic and non-metallic elements, combine directly with chlorine as bases, while their oxides form well defined acids. The same two semi-metals in combination with sulphur play the part of acids, not only to the oxides but to the sulphides of the alkalies, giving rise thereby to the salts of sulphur bases alluded to above, Thus the ter- and penta-sulphides of arsenic and antimony combine with the sulphides of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, giving rise to sulphur salts, of which sulpharseniate of sulphide of potassium may be taken as an example. Gold, platinum, and tin, in combination with sulphur, also act as sulphur acids towards the oxides and sulphides of the alkalis. A metallic chloride may be regarded as playing the part of a base, as for instance, the potassio-chloride of platinum, KCI Pt Cl, in which the chloride of potassium is the base, and the chloride of platinum the acid. In all cases of double salts, indeed, whether resulting from the union of two binary compounds, or of two oxygen salts, we may consider the one salt as the base, and the other as the acid, as seen in the following formulæ : KCI Mg Cl; KOSO, HOSO,; KOSO, MOSO3. Different quantities of the same base may combine with the same acid, and form well defined salts. The phosphates furnish the most complete example of this. If the phosphate of soda and ammonia (2NHO, Na OPO), be heated to redness, all the ammonia is expelled, and monobasic phosphate of soda (NaO PO,) is left. If ordinary phosphate of soda (HO 2NaO PO2) be heated, water is expelled and bibasic phosphate of soda remains. If ordinary phosphate of soda be treated with caustic soda, tribasic phosphate of soda (3 NaO, PO,) separates out on evaporation. Hence phosphoric acid may combine with soda, or soda with phosphoric acid in these proportions, related to one another by weights, as 1, 2, and 3. Phosphoric acid is on this account called polybasic. Antimonic and arsenic acids have also the power of combining with bases in different proportions. Some other acids combine with two, and others again with one or two proportions of base. Among the oxides of the heavy metals, oxide of lead is pre-eminent in possessing the power of uniting in various quantities with acids to form salts which contain more than one basic molecule for every acid one present. [ACIDS, SALTS.] The non-metallic group ammonia (NH), in combination with water as the oxide of the quasi metal ammonium (NH), combines with oxygen acids to form salts, in the same manner as do the oxides of the metals proper. Moreover, not only do the hydrochlorate of ammonia, or chloride of ammonium, iodide of ammonium, sulphide of ammonium, &c., present the strongest analogies to the chlorides, iodides, &c., of the metals proper, but such binary salts of ammonium as combine with salts of the met is either binary or oxygen, exhibit the same analogies; thus: NH 0. NHONO NH OSO, MOSO。. NHCl, PtCl. etc. Analogous to ко. KONO. MOSO g. KOSO 3, KCl, tClą. etc. At present however, the basic nature of such inorganic substitutionammonias has not been sufficiently studied to be discussed here. products of ammonia, where organic molecules replace one or more BASE IN ARCHITECTURE. [COLUMN] BASE, CONTINUED. [CONTINUED BASE.] BASE FEE. [ESTATE; RECOVERY; TENANT-IN-TAIL.] BASE, FUNDAMENTAL. [FUNDAMENTAL BASE.] BASE, THOROUGH. [THOROUGH BASE.] from G or F below the base staff to D or E above it; but some few BASE VOICE, the lowest male voice, the usual compass of which is voices exceed the limits here assigned, and must be considered as exceptions to the rule. Handel, in the aria Fra l'ombre,' in his opera of 'Sosarmes,' exacts from the singer a compass of two octaves-from down to the sea in ships,' altogether mistaking the meaning of the F above the staff to F below; and Purcell, in his anthem They that go word down,' and in a wretched endeavour to express descent, writes for the base a run of notes from D above to D below the staff. BASEL, COUNCIL OF. [COUNCILS.] forming the base of a private house or public edifice. This feature of BASEMENT, in Architecture, is the lowest story of a building, accordingly, in the designs of Palladio, and the other great masters of a building should possess externally the character of strength; and, the Italian school, we find that the basement has a massive appearance, capable of sustaining the order or orders which are often placed above it. In edifices used as dwellings the basement is high; but in churches and other public buildings it is usually kept low. Some basements are as high in proportion as the floor or story placed above it, while others are not more than a third or a half of the height. The proportions of basements vary according to the conveniences required in the lower story, or to the importance attached to the floor or floors which Architecture,' gives rules for the proportions of the parts forming the they may support. Sir William Chambers, in his Treatise on Civil characteristic features of the basement, but at the same time he admits that "the proportions of these basements are not fixed," but depend chiefly on the nature of the apartments forming the ground-floor. "In that floor, the basements are sometimes very high. At the palace of "where the summer habitations are very frequently on Italy," he says, the Porti, in Vicenza, the height is equal to that of the order placed thereon; and at the Thiene, in the same city, its height exceeds twothirds of that of the order, although it be almost of a sufficient elevation to contain two stories; but at the Villa Capra and at the Loco Arsieri, both near Vicenza, the basement is only half the height of the order, because in both these the ground-floor consists of nothing but offices." These four works enumerated present different proportions, and are all from the designs of Palladio. The true principle is that the proportions of a basement should not be regulated by any rigid rule, but that it be made higher or lower according to the it purpose is intended to subserve in the general design. In the edifices of antiquity the basement is usually low, and intended to support an order of columns. The monuments of Lysicrates and Philopappus at Athens are, however, examples of high basements. The edifice at In basements the masonry is usually rusticated and set upon a Whitehall, to which we have frequently referred, and the Cathedral plinth, on which there is sometimes a moulded base; the upper part of St. Paul's, London, have both a low basement. of the basement is surmounted with a broad band, under which, at Whitehall, London, from a drawing measured and delineated, by Mr. William Barnes, architect. times, mouldings are employed. A cornice is also used occasionally In the beautiful palaces of Rome and Florence the basements are finely proportioned. For geometrical representations of these buildings we refer to the architectural work of MM. Percier et Lafontaine, entitled Palais de Rome et de Florence.' The published designs of Palladio, Vignola, and Scamozzi, may also be consulted with advantage by the student in architecture. BASHA. [PASHA.] BASIL, MONKS OF ST. When St. Basil, bishop of Cæsarea, retired into Pontus, about the year 358, for the convenience of himself and his followers, he founded a monastery, to which he gave a written rule for its regulation, the first of the kind that had appeared, and which was soon adopted in numerous other monasteries. This rule shortly spread itself over the East, and, according to the generality of writers, was not very long in passing to the West. Those who adopted it styled themselves of the order of St. Basil; and St. Basil's Rule was, in fact, the parent of that which was afterwards framed by St. Benedict. (See Schlosser's remarks on Basil, 'Universalhistorische Uebersicht,' &c., 3 th. 3 abth.) Dom Alphonso Clavel, the Spanish annalist of this order ('Antiguedad de la Relig. y Regl. de S. Basilio,' c. viii. § 2), says that Basil's Rule was approved and confirmed by Pope Liberius in the same year in which it was written and published, A.D. 363; afterwards by several other popes; and was, in a later age of the Church, revised by Pope Gregory XIII., who, about 1573, united the religious of this order in Italy, Spain, and Sicily into one congregation. The abridgment of this Rule made by Cardinal Bessarion, during the pontificate of Eugene IV., and approved by Gregory XIII., was also confirmed by Popes Clement VIII. Paul V. and Alexander VII. Moréri gives 1057 as the date when the order was introduced in the West. St. Saviour, at Messina, is now considered as its chief monastery in the West. The monks of St. Basil in Spain follow the Greek, those of Italy the Latin ritual. The Greek monks are chiefly of this order, which exists to a great extent in Russia; though in that country, if we may rely on Dr. King, the monks have deviated from their original Rule. He says, "Basil is generally looked upon as the founder of the order of monks which exists in Russia, though, in truth | their Rules, at least those they observe at present, are taken from several different persons; as Ephraim of Edessa, Gregory, Chrysostom," &c. (See 'Hist. des Ordres Monastiques,' 4to, Par. 1714, tom. i. pp. 175-238, where engravings will be found of the dresses worn by both monks and nuns of this order in the respective countries; Moréri, 'Dictionnaire Historique,' fol. Par. 1759, tom. ii. p. 154; King, 'Rites and Ceremonies of the Greek Church in Russia,' 4to, Lond. 1772, p. 365; Rodolph, 'Hospiniani de Monach,' lib. iii.) 6 The order of St. Basil was never, that we know of, introduced into England; though Sir Roger Twysden, in his Rise of the Monastic State,' p. 5 (as quoted by Tanner, Pref. to Notit. Monast.' p. li.), says, "The monks of Bangor were not unlike the order of Basil, if not of it." The genuine history of the monastery of Bangor, however, in its earliest period, cannot now be traced upon authority which can be relied on. BASILICA (βασιλικά, βασιλικός νόμος). This term denotes a collection or digest of the Corpus Juris' of Justinian, translated from the original Latin into the Greek language. This work was commenced and brought to its present state during the latter part of the 9th and the beginning of the 10th centuries, under the superintendence of the Greek emperors of Constantinople. The design of reducing the laws of Justinian into one Greek book from the several Latin collections in which they were known in the Western Empire, is said to have been originally formed, and was certainly in part executed, by Basil I., called the Macedonian, whose reign commenced A.D. 867, and ended in 886, and from whom the book derives its name. Basil's death occurred before the completion of the work; and all that was effected in his time was a kind of Preface, or Introduction, which was called Пpóxepor Twv vóuwv, and consisted of forty heads, or titles. Leo VI., surnamed the Philosopher, who succeeded his father Basil as emperor of Constantinople, brought the collection considerably nearer to its present form. Under his direction it was distributed into six general heads, each of which was subdivided into ten titles; from which circumstance it is entitled in some manuscripts 'Edßißxos (the Six-Book), and in others 'EnkovтάBIBAOS (the Sixty-Book). The Basilica were however finally reduced into their present form by Constantine VII., commonly called Constantine Porphyrogeneta, the son of Leo the Philosopher, in the early part of the 10th century, and were published under the |