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as a body of persons belonging to one country and political community, who having abandoned that country and community, form a new and separate system, independent or separate, in some district which is wholly or nearly uninhabited "and from which they expel the ancient inhabitants.”

A few years later Charles Dickens amused the public with his satirical portrait of Mrs. Jelleby, who was “devoted to the subject of Africa, with a view to the general cultivation of coffee-and the natives." But the sense of obligation for the growth of the natives as well as the coffee gradually developed until at present no statesman, trader or colonial business man dares ignore it. Recently Lord Milner, speaking at a meeting of the Royal Colonial Institute, said that in the rivalry between the nations that one "will be most successful which exhibits the greatest wisdom in its efforts to promote the welfare and progress and contentment of its subject people."

Colonization has thus come to signify the extension by annexation or some form of protectorate, of the authority and activities of an established power over lands vacant or inhabited to some extent by a people of a lower order of civilization with the object of developing the resources of the country and ameliorating the physical and moral conditions of the natives. It thus involves moral, political and economic considerations3 but not necessarily the training of the natives for self-government, or even for participation in the government.

In fact, European states generally affect to ignore the question

there for purposes of government, or of trade, with the ever-present intention of returning to the homeland. Egerton, supra. The great body of the people who are born, live and die in such countries are of a different race and of a lower order of civilization. Colonies, as distinguished from dependencies, and from Crown colonies, in British nomenclature, belong almost entirely to the temperate zone. Dependencies and most Crown colonies are in the tropics.

2 United Empire (N. S.), II, p. 136. On the same occasion Mr. George E. Foster, Minister of Trade and Commerce of Canada, said that the solution of the whole problem largely depends upon "the view we take as colonizing people of the trust which is imposed upon us by the assumption of dominion over the countries and peoples who inhabit those countries."

8 Francois et Rouget, Legislation Coloniale, p. 3 (1909). See Girault, Principes de Colonisation et Legislation Coloniale (1895).

of the political development of the native people because it involves the question of the permanency of their tenure. The United States has frankly put it in the forefront of the program. Her experiment in tropical colonization in the Philippines has therefore certain features which deserve special attention. She accepts as axiomatic the principle that the good of the native people is the primary object of the metropolitan state. Her policy is distinctive in that it places stress upon the political as well as the economic development of the natives and on education as the primary means by which such development is to be effected. It is almost unique in that its complete success requires the elimination of the metropolitan state from the situation."

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The modern theory of colonization leads logically to this conclusion, but the United States only has announced that complete self-government and ultimately an independent state is not only the incidental and possible result of its Philippine policy, but the direct object of its activities. America hopes that a prosperous tropical dependency will in the course of time grow into a free state through the development of the capacity of the people for self-government. If this most generous and altruistic of colonial projects fails, it will be because the Filipinos prove unequal to the responsibility which has been laid upon them. In that event America must be content with having given the distracted country order, peace, justice, and a high degree of material prosperity.

The work of the United States in the Philippines has therefore an important place in the history of colonization. It recognizes the naturalness and propriety of the aspiration of the natives for nationality and also the certain effect of Western education on Eastern people. It sees what is written across the heavens

4 The difference is one of priority and degree. Great Britain places order and material prosperity first and education second. The United States would use education as a means to secure these necessary objects.

This is also true of England in Egypt. In India the concession of greater powers of self-government and larger participation in the work of government implies the permanence of British rule. Logically, however, it leads to the ultimate elimination of Great Britain, should the Indians ever grow into a nation and prove themselves capable of self-government.

and frankly attempts to aid and direct instead of obstruct what is a perfectly natural growth.

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A rapid glance over the history of colonization will enable one to understand and appreciate the dynamic force of the idea of nationality which is now so powerfully influencing the minds of Eastern peoples.

Colonization is as old as history. It has been going on since men first founded families, communities, cities, states and nations. Few things in nature have been less permanent than national boundaries and the territorial possessions of nations. States have been born, struggled for life, expanded, absorbed their neighbors, established colonies, decayed, been absorbed and disappeared from the map. Europe has been overrun, repeopled, divided and subdivided, and Asia is one vast burial place of dead states.

All primitive peoples engaged in some form of colonization. The Chinese from motives of safety or trade gradually extended their boundaries until they embraced the great plains to the north and west, which have so recently been lost to a more aggressive race. They spread throughout the world but they establish no colonies; they remain strangers in the lands of their adoption.

The Phoenicians were the first colonizing people of whom we possess a record, and their influence has extended even to modern times. Forced out of their diminutive home country and impelled by the instinct of the trader, they established trading posts along the shores of the Mediterranean and even to the north as far as the coasts of Britain and Germany. They were not idealistic-they cared nothing for empire-and the political bonds between their colonies were weak or non-existent. Their motives were commercial or religious, not political. Absorbed in the struggle for wealth they were unable to consolidate and preserve a colonial empire and in time gave way for the Greeks.

• It may be well to state that few if any writers on colonial subjects show much confidence in the success of popular or representative government in the tropics. See Reinsch, Colonial Government, Chap. XI.

Lewis, Government of Dependencies, p. 307.

The Greek state occasionally established subordinate governments outside of its boundaries, but Greek colonization generally was conducted upon other theories. The Greek word for colony signifies a separation of dwelling, a departure from home, a going out of the house. It suggests a derivative but politically independent community." "An ancient Greek colony," says Archbishop Whately," "was like what gardeners call a layer, a portion of the parent tree, with some twigs and leaves embedded in fresh soil, till it has taken root and then severed." It was of such colonies that Turgot was thinking when he wrote that "colonies are like fruits which only cling until they ripen." When this final condition was reached separation according to the Greek conception of a political community as a mere city, was inevitable. According to Aristotle, the state must be of moderate population because otherwise "who could command in war if the population were excessive, or what herald short of a Senator could speak to them?" As each Greek city increased in population it was necessary to replant another shoot because no city should be so large that any part of it was beyond the reach of a herald's voice. Such colonization has been compared to the swarming of bees or the migration of married children to their own homes.

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As the city state increased in population it was therefore necessary that some should emigrate and we may assume that it was the adventurous, the unsuccessful, and the needy who, under the lead of a few bold spirits, became the founders of new states.

That assisted emigration was not unknown even in those early days appears from the institution ver sacrum which flourished among the Greco-Italian branch of the Aryan family during the time when Italy was being occupied. All the children born in one spring were dedicated to a certain deity which, being a reasonable deity, was willing to accept emigration in lieu of sacrifice. Its votaries were accumulated and when they reached a proper

See Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, Book IV, Chap. 7.

8 Note to Bacon's Essay on Plantations.

9 Politics, Book VII, Chap. 4.

age were driven across the frontier and left to found a city for themselves.10

The Greek colonies were often founded without the express authority of the state, and were not designed to increase its power and dominion. They were usually established in some unoccupied or partially occupied territory and were practically independent from the first. Their relation to the parent state resembled somewhat that of the American colonies to England after the War of Independence.

Roman colonization was conducted under different conditions and upon entirely different theories. Rome dealt with subject people and was satisfied if she gave them peace, order and justice under Roman domination. Her vast and complicated system of dependencies can only be glanced at. Those in Italy were either city communities known as municipia or coloniæ. The former were cities formerly independent, which after being conquered, retained their local civil laws. The latter were generally established in existing towns after the citizens had been ejected. They were strictly dependent on the home state.

The colonists were sent out by Rome for the purpose of confirming and extending her influence and were paid for their services by grants of land. The old military colonies—the coloniæ civium Romanorum—were simply garrisons of Roman soldiers placed in the conquered towns of Italy. As the incoming Romans amalgamated with the native community they formed a colony which in time became a part of the Roman state. In the time of the Gracchi, colonies were founded beyond seas for the purpose of drawing off the surplus population and thus relieving the agrarian situation. Later, generals like Marius, Pompey and Cæsar established military colonies for the purpose of aiding their veteran soldiers.

Beyond Italy, conquered states after being "reduced under the formula of a province" became Roman dependencies. A province was under the immediate supervision of a resident provincial Roman governor styled at various periods, praetor, propraetor, 10 Seeley, Expansion of England, p. 47.

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