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1. Où est-ce que je vais ? 2. Vous allez chez le chapelier. 3. Est-ce que je vais à la banque? 4. Vous allez à la banque et au concert. 5. Est-ce que je coupe votre bois ? 6. Vous ne coupez ni mon bois ni mon habit. 7. Est-ce que je porte un Capeau vert? 8. Vous ne portez pas un chapeau vert, vous en portez un noir. 9. Votre écolier va-t-il quelque part? 10. I va à l'église, à l'école et au marché. 11. Ne va-t-il pas chez le des bottes de cuir rouge? 14. J'en porte de cuir noir. perruquier ? 12. Il ne va nulle part. 13. Ne portez-vous point N'allez-vous pas chez le banquier? 16. Je ne vais pas chez lui; il est absent depuis hier. 17. Vient-il à la banque ce matin? 18. Il a l'intention d'y venir, s'il a le temps.* 19. A-t-il envie d'aller au concert ? 20. Il a grande envie d'y aller, mais il n'a pas de billet. 21. Demeurez-vous dans ce village? 22. Oui,

15.

2. The first person singular of the indicative of avoir, to have; être, to be; aller, to go; pouvoir, to be able; devoir, to owe; savoir, to know, etc., may, however, be conjugated interroga- Monsieur, j'y demeure. 23. Envoyez-vous ce billet à la poste ? tively according to the general rules.

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3. The form est-ce que is always allowable, and sometimes preferable, when the first person singular of the present of the indicative of a verb has several syllables [§ 98 (6)]. Est-ce que je vous envoie des livres? Do I send you books? Est-ce que je commence à parler ? Do I begin to speak?

4. Est-ce que may, in familiar conversation, be used with all the persons of those tenses susceptible of being conjugated interrogatively:-Qu'est-ce que vous lisez ? may be said, instead of, Que lisez-vous? What do you read?

5. INTERROGATIVE FORM OF THE INDICATIVE PRESENT OF ALLER, to go. Est-ce que je vais ? do

I go, or am I going?

Vas-tu?

Va-t-il ?

Allons-nous ?

Allez-vous ?

Vont-ils ?

ENVOYER, to send. Est-ce que j'envoie ? do I send, or am I sending? Envoies-tu ? Envoie-t-il ? Envoyons-nous ? Envoyez-vous ? Envoient-ils ?

VENIR, to come. Est-ce que je viens? do I come, or am I Viens-tu? [coming? Vient-il ? Venons-nous ? Venez-vous? Viennent-ils ?

6. The article le, preceded by the preposition à, is contracted into au before a noun masculine commencing with a consonant, or an h aspirate; and into aux before a plural noun [§ 13 (8)]. Allez-vous au bal ou au marché? Do you go to the ball or to the market? 7. À l'eglise means at or to church; à l'école, at or to school. Nous allons à l'église et à l'école, We go to church and to school.

8. Quelque part means somewhere, anywhere; nulle part, nowhere.

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24. Je l'envoie à son adresse.

EXERCISE 44.

1. Do I wear my large black hat? 2. You wear a handsome green hat. 3. Does the banker go to the hairdresser's this morning? 4. He goes there this morning. 5. Does he intend to go to the bank this morning? 6. He does not intend to go there, he has no time. 7. Do you send your letters to the postoffice? 8. I do not send them, they are not yet written (écrites). 9. Do I send you a note? 10. You send me a ticket, but I have no wish to go to the concert. 11. Does your brother go to school to-morrow? 12. He goes (there) to-day, and remains at home to-morrow. 13. Do I go there? 14. You do not go anywhere. 15. Where do you go? 16. I am going to your brother's, is he at home? 17. He is not at home, he is absent since yesterday. 18. Does your brother live in this village? 19. He does not [Sect. XXIII. 12], he lives at my nephew's. 20. Are you wrong to go to school? 21. No, Sir, I am right to go to church and to school. 22. Do you wish to come to my house? 23. I like to go to your house, and to your brother's. 24. When are you coming to our house? 25. To-morrow, if I have time. 26. Does the banker like to come here? 27. He likes to come to your house. 28. Is the hairdresser coming? 29. He is not yet coming. 30. What are you sending to the scholar? 31. I am sending books, paper, and clothes. 32. Where is he? 33. He is at school. 34. Is the school in the village? 35. It is there.

LESSONS IN BOTANY.-VII.

SECTION XI.-REPRESENTATIVES FOR LEAVES IN
CRYPTOGAMIC PLANTS.

LEAVES, properly so called, only exist on plants which bear
flowers. The reader may test this by his own experience. Did
he ever see a leaf on a mushroom, or a moss, or any other
cryptogamic plant? Probably he may say, "Yes, I have seen
them on ferns, and these are cryptogamic plants." Well, we
have already stated that the leaf-like expansions on ferns are
not leaves, but fronds, and we have explained the distinction
between a leaf and a frond. It only remains to be said, in
connection with this subject, that the little stem to which these
fronds are attached, and which corresponds to a petiole in a real
leaf, is denominated a stipes, from the Latin stipes, the trunk of
a tree.
In the next page is a representation of one of the tree-
ferns of tropical climates, the trunk of which is denominated a
cauder, from the Latin cauder, a stem.

* The i of si is elided before il, ils, but in no other case. This is the only instance of the elision of i.

Ir past ares these tree-fers must have been amongst the most numerous of vegetatie producams Com we need hardy say, is well known be ng more that the remains of Vegetatut substances mg vaned under rest pressure in the ear that they have changed to the coin with we at presem: find them. Noring the manre of quality, yet i mary cases the or shape of the vegetable has not underFone alteration S:t & person saty wonted with botary car readily set the and of past from which any specimer of con under matest me been formed. Arnouri franās are the substates for leaves in ferns and several other game pants. Devertheless these organs are To the mirers : but the general complenty of pagamur pants the microsorpus mature of these organs, and the comparatay mined sogntance with this vace of the Tepetlive wind render a miratue to state mash ooooerning then It & series of papers like these, which so many tribes of flowering puGS CHECHE STAT DOGDE.

SECTION ON THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF

look at and agreeable to smel the botanist is obliged frequently to destroy them before he can make himself acquainted with the perthants of ther stratare; that is to say, he is obliged to eat or pal ther vanons tegans from their attachments; this operatie is termed section Presently, then, we shall have to dissect a fower and learn its various parts. As a preliminary to this exammatice bowerer. it will be necessary that the learner abould make himself acquainted with some general terms employed in this department of Botany.

First of all then the manner in which flowers are arranged upon any plant is termed the inflorescence of that plant. By the term botannete derstand not merely the flower itself, but various appendages to the dower; in short, the term inflorescence has a very wide signification.

SECTION XIV.-MANNER IN WHICH FLOWERS ARE ATTACHED.

The attachment of flowers to the parent stem usually takes place through the intervention of a little branch-like appendage, to which the term place, or occasionally pedicel, is applied. The reader will therefore remember that a peduncle or pedicel stands to a fower in the same relation as a petiole to a leaf. It

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PLANTS THE FLOWER AND ITS APPENDAGES. Heng vuna vist is sy ooourning the astritive ps Juwe w desite ther regeoductore members. the flower and e appendages. It would be fully, deed to describe family what meant by a fower. S the purposes to win a fower designed in the ecmony of TegeBit require our sticke consideran Witbeat flowers there could be no frus: about frut there can b no seed: and without the later the greater 21ber of vegetaties could not be moed The reason them for demommating fowers the reprodaotive organs of plants will be mani feet. To state this fact, that fowers are the reproductive portions of a giant as very easy. To demonerase, however, the elaborate masus by with the fictions of reproductoe are Secharged is very difficult. Indeed the laws affecting the mealtamen of animals and vegetables

are so sumar in many respects,

that many of the terms employed in the department of Botany are borrowed from the sister stobes of ammal smatomy and physiology: and without some preiminary knowledge of these sciences it would be next to impossible to make the

30. TRES FERS.

reader ccmprehend the tricacies of vegetable reproductions.
We therefore shall not attempt to deal with these intricacies,
bas shall content ourselves by saying that all plants most pro-;
bably, certamiy all endently-owering or phenogamous plants
possess sexes, and these sexes are many i the same plant, in
the same fower of the plant Occasionally, however, the two
k2s are on ferens devers and sometimes on different
pists. We may, therefore, popularly say, that the greater
wumber of dowers contain both panta pilies; but occs
sumy. In some pisata, the gentlemen and babes bare fowers
each sex to auf, and scenery, an the peotlemen mono-
pouse all the fowers a ne piano mi the lates all the flowers
en the other. Where rese two sets of flowers
on one plaat, then a plants ibe & from two
Greek wards, as romaned was and as pronounced
sks, sugar cue touse the plant, we suppose, being
regarded se a house and the fewers as chambers in the same.
When, however, the messe in the dowers of one plant.
and the females at the fovers of another, then such plants
are sand to be den, or "wo-based the reason of which
will be obvious

SECT. THI-ANATOMICAL EXAMINATION OF A FLOWER.
Plosing objects of contemplation as flowers are, beautiful to

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is also called the primary axis of inflorescence, and the flower-stalks which spring from it are called the secondary, tertiary, etc., axes. These pedicels or flower-stalks are arranged on various plants in different ways, and thus give rise to various terms indicative of the nature of inflorescence. The word ped cle is derived from the low Latin pernerius, a little foot, while peel is derived from the Latin

das, which has the same meaning. Both words are diminutives of the Latin pes, a foot.

The inflorescence, or mode of flowering, is said to be definite or temal when the primary axis is terminated by a flower. When the original stem goes on growing in a straight line, giving off as it proceeds little flower-shoots or secondary ares of various degrees on either side, but does not terminate in a flower, then the term indefinite infrescence is applied; the propriety of which term will be obvious. The term arillary is sometimes given to this condition of inflorescence. If the reader glance for an instant at Fig. 60 in the opposite page, he will be at no loss to comprehend what is meant by indefinite or ariary infrescence The reader will here please to observe the little leaf-ke things from the arilla (or junctions with the primary axis of which the flower-peduncles spring in this example. Such leaf-like appendages are frequently to be seen attached to the peduncles of many flowers. They are called hearts, from the Latin bractea, a thin plate of metal, and although their usual appearance is green like a leaf, yet they sometimes undergo very strange modifications. Thus, the pineapple, which we discovered long ago to be no fruit, is, in reality, nothing more than an assemblage of fleshy bracts, and the scale of the fir-cone is nothing more than hard leathery bracts. In proportion as bracts are developed nearer to a flower, so does their natural green colour give place to the colour of the dower itself. Osonally the flower actually springs from the upper surface of a bract, as in the case of the linden Fig. 61).

Sometimes bracts unite at the base of each group of flowers, and on the same plane, as, for example, we find it in the carrot. This association of bracts gives rise to what botanists term the Lava Latin word, which is derived from volvo, to wrap or roll, ani which means anything that serves to wrap

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60. AXILLARY INFLORESCENCE. 61. FLOWER OF THE LINDEN TREE-BRACT CONSOLIDATED WITH THE PEDUNCLE. 62. RACEME OF THE CURRANT. 63. COMPOUND RACEME OF THE HORSE CHESTNUT. 64. CORYMB OF THE MAHALEB CHERRY. 65. SIMPLE UMBEL OF THE COMMON CHERRY. 66. COMPOUND UMBEL OF THE COMMON FENNEL. 67. DICHOTOMOUS CYME. 68. CORYMBOUS CAPITULUM OF GROUNDSEL. 69. COMPOUND 70. SIMPLE SPIKE OF THE VERVAIN. 71. CAPITULUM OF THE SCABIOUS. 72. CORYMBOUS CYME OF THE HAWTHO 73. FASCICULE OF THE MALLOW. 74. UMBELLAR CYME OF THE CELANDINE.

SPIKE OF WHEAT.

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• Bome' what's brushed, but set free from daily itive things I Southe? "Tried and convicted traitor"*** Whol prove it, at his peril, on my head? Bastei -I thank you for t It breaks my chain! I held sume sunt legiance till this hour-but now my sword's my own. Year censils merciful. For this all thanks. He dares not touch hur of Carline. "Traitor!" I go but I return. This Here I devote your senate! I've had wrongs to stir a fever in the blued of age. • * This day is the birth of sorrows. The ere could at once command a long-stretching vista, seemingly ciesel and shut up at both extremities by the coalescing cliffs. It seemed like Laocoon struggling ineffectually the hideous coils

Ale ang katutum is of the monster Python.

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In those mournful months, when vegetables and animals are alike coerced by cold, man is tributary to the howling storm and the sullen sky; and is, in the pathetic phrase of Johnson, a "slave to

gloom."

I would call upon all the true sons of humanity to cooperate with the laws of man and the justice of Heaven in abolishing this "cursed traffic."

Come, faith, and people these deserts! Come and reanimate these regions of forgetfulness.

I am a professed lucubrator; and who so well qualified to delineate the sable hours, as

"A meagre, muse-rid mope, adjust and thin ?" He forsook, therefore, the bustling tents of his father, the pleasant south country" and the "well Lahai-roi;" he went out and pensively meditated at the eventide (see Genesis xxiv. 62).

The Grecian and Roman philosophers firmly believed that "the dead of midnight is the noon of thought."

Young observes, with much energy, that "an undevout astronomer is mad."

Young Blount his armour did unlace, and, gazing on his ghastly face, said-" By Saint George, he's gone! that spear-wound has our Good night to master sped; and see the deep cut on his head! Marmion!"-" Unnurtured Blount! thy brawling cease; he opes his A celebrated modern writer says, "Take care of the minutes, and eyes," said Eustace, "peace!"

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In this lesson, as well as in some of the preceding lessons, there are several sentences of poetry, which are not divided into poetical lines. The object of printing these lines without regard to this division, was to prevent the student from falling into that "sing song" utterance, into which he is too apt to fall in reading verse. remains to be observed here, that abbreviations and contractions, such as occur in poetical sentences in this lesson and others, which appear in the form of prose, are not allowable in prose itself.

It

the hours will take care of themselves." This is an admirable
remark, and might be very seasonably recollected when we begin to
be" weary in well-doing," from the thought of having much to do.
I've seen the moon gild the mountain's brow; I've watched the
mist o'er the river stealing; but ne'er did I feel in my breast, till now,
so deep, so calm, and so holy a feeling; 'tis soft as the thrill which
memory throws athwart the soul in the hour of repose.

Blest be the day I 'scaped the wrangling crew from Pyrrho's maze and Epicurus' sty; and held high converse with the godlike few, who to th' enraptured heart, and ear, and eye, teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody.

But thou, who Heaven's just vengeance dar'st defy, this deed, with fruitless tears, shalt soon deplore.

O Winter! ruler of the inverted year! thy scatter'd hair with slectlike ashes fill'd, thy breath congeal'd upon thy lips, thy cheeks fring'd with a beard made white with other snows than those of age, thy forehead wrapt in clouds, a leafless branch thy sceptre, and thy throne a sliding car, indebted to no wheels, but urg'd by storms along its slipp'ry way, I love thee, all unlovely as thou seem'st, and dreaded as thou art!

For as I passed by, and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription, "To THE UNKNOWN GOD." Whom therefore ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you.

ye

XIV. THE ASTERISK, OBELISK, DOUBLE OBELISK, SECTION,

PARALLEL, PARAGRAPH, INDEX, CARET, BREVE, AND
BRACE.

The student should take particular notice of the following marks, so that he may call them by name, and discover their use in the following examples

* An Asterisk, or Star.

† An Obelisk, or Dagger. A Double Obelisk.

A Paragraph.
§ A Section.
A Parallel.

78. The Asterisk, Obelisk, Double Obelisk, Paragraph, Section, Parallels, and sometimes figures or letters, are used to show that there is a note at the bottom of the page. When many notes occur on a page, these marks are sometimes doubled.

79. The Paragraph was formerly used to show the beginning of a new subject in a chapter.

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MECHANICS. VI.

FINDING CENTRES OF GRAVITY.

IN the last lesson it was shown that every mass of matter has a centre of gravity, but we did not inquire how such centres are found in bodies of known shapes. To that part of our subject we now proceed.

As a general rule, the problem requires high mathematics for its solution; but there are some cases in which the centre can be discovered without much difficulty. I take, first, the practical method by suspension, which gives it exactly whenever the body is of a uniform thickness, such as a deal board, or card, or piece of paper. The two opposite faces should be equal and alike, the edges being either perpendicular or square to them, or running off at the same slope. In all such cases it is evident that the centre of gravity is within the substance of the board half-way across between the faces. If, therefore, we can find the point on either face under which it lies, by boring straight in half-way at that point, the required centre is reached.

But how find the outside point? Let the board be of any irregular shape, as at a (Fig. 27), and bore two holes through it perpendicularly at any two points, near its edge, o and Q. Put a straight iron rod now through o, and on the rod, by a small ring, hang a plumb-line, o A, close to the board. Put rod, line, and board now across two supports, so arranged that the rod may be horizontal. The board having settled to rest, the centre of gravity will, as I showed in last lesson, be somewhere behind the plumb-line. Chalk now, or mark with a pencil, the course, is placed over a letter to show that it has o A, of this line on the board. Perform the same operation with

80. The Section is generally used to sub-divide chapters into lesser parts.

81. The Index or Hand requires particular attention. 82. The Breve

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a short sound; as, Hělěna.

points to something which

83. The Brace is used to unite several lines of poetry; or, in prose, to connect a number of words with one common term. 81. The Caret is never used in printed books; but in writing it shows that something has accidentally been left

out; as,

recited

George has his lesson.

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the hole Q, pencilling in like manner the line Q B. What now have we? Two lines, behind both which the centre of gravity lies; whence we infer that their intersection, a, is the point required.

But the method in part applies to bodies which have not parallel faces like boards, or are not cut perpendicularly, or at the same slope across at their edges; but in such cases the sought centre is not midway across. All that is necessary is

OBS.-When several asterisks or stars are placed together, that there should be one flat face on it, as in that represented they represent an ellipsis.

Examples.

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at b (Fig. 27). You can still determine the point a, behind which the centre of gravity lies, by boring two passages at o and Q, perpendicularly to the face, into its substance, suspending and marking the lines o A, Q B, as before. The centre of gravity will still be behind the point &; but where, or how far in, is another question, the answer to which depends on the shape of the body.

If the board which above first occupied our attention be supposed to become very thin--to be cardboard, or even paper-the body becomes almost all surface, and the point & and the centre of gravity nearly coincide. Practically, they become identical; and the operation is sometimes spoken of as "the finding of the centre of gravity of an area or surface." In strictness, a surface cannot have a centre of gravity, for (see Lesson I. on Geometry) it has no thickness, and therefore can have no weight, no force, no centre of force. But, for all that, the inquiry is useful. We may agree, for mechanical purposes, that a surface should have such a centre; and the best course for that purpose is to give it a thickness the smallest we can conceive, namely, that of one particle or atom. Imagine, then, a triangle, or polygon, or circle, one atom thick; and let us agree that, when we find its

Tarn is a small lake, high up in the mountains. ** A clergyman.

+ Cure.-The office of a clergyman.

‡‡ Stole.-A long robe worn by the clergy of England.

§§ Bridewell.-A house of correction.

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