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CHAPTER XII.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

§ 250. PRONOUNS can not be conveniently classed without admitting many words which may also be considered as Adjectives. These may be called either Pronominal Adjectives or Adjective Pronouns. See § 182. "All words which, instead of naming or describing an object, enable us to distinguish it by some relations, are Pronouns, or have a pronominal character."-Buttmann. It matters little whether the words under consideration are called Adjective Pronouns, or Pronominal Adjectives. For all practical purposes the terms may be considered as convertible.

EACH, Anglo-Saxon Elc, Scotch ilka, the l being dropped, as in which and such. It is sometimes called a distributive, because it denotes all the individuals of a number taken separately; as, "The four beasts had each of them six wings." In this passage each is a substitute for the "four beasts." "The prince had a body-guard of a thousand men, each of whom was six feet high." In these two examples each is used in its Pronominal character. "He exacted of each man fifty shekels." In this passage each is an Adjective.

EVERY, Old English Everich, everech, evirilk one, is aelc, preceded by the word ever. It denotes all the individuals of a number greater than two, separately considered. "Each and every of the clauses and conditions." Pronoun. "Every man's performances." Adjective.

both.

noun.

Here every is a Here every is an

EITHER, Anglo-Saxon Ægper, denotes one of two, but not "Either of the roads is good." Here either is a Pro"I will take either road at your pleasure." Here either is an Adjective. Either has also sometimes the meaning of each; as, "Seven times the sun had either tropic viewed." "Two thieves were crucified on either side." NEITHER not either, is used as a Pronoun and as an Ad

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jective; as, "Neither office will fit the candidate, though neither of the offices is filled."

OTHER, Anglo-Saxon Oder, is used as a Pronoun, and opposed to one; as, "All rational evidence is derived from one or other of these two sources." It is also used as an Adjective; as, "Other sheep I have which are not of this fold." When used without a substantive it takes a Plural, Other, others. Other indicates separation, and means one more, or

some of the same class or kind.

ANOTHER is the Anglo-Saxon An, one, and oðer=one other. "Let another praise thee, and not thine own mouth." Here another is a Pronoun. "Another soldier was killed." Here another is an Adjective. Another is used in the possessive case; as, "Another's aid."

ONE, a numeral Adjective, is also used as a Pronoun. One, when contrasted with other, sometimes represents plural nouns; as, "The reason why the one are ordinarily taken for real qualities, and the other for bare powers, seems to be."-Locke. Johnson says, "This relative mode of speech is not very elegant, yet it is used by good authors." "There are many whose waking thoughts are wholly employed on their sleeping ones."-Addison. It frequently is not easy to distinguish between the one here described, and the one described in § 249. One often stands in company with every,

any, no, some.

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ANY, Anglo-Saxon anig, Old High-German einic-any, and einac single. In Anglo-Saxon ânega means single. In New High-German einig means, 1. A certain person. 2. Agreeing; einzig, meaning single. In Dutch ênech has both meanings. This indicates the word ánone, as the root of the word in question. Any has several meanings: 1. After negative words, and such words and phrases as have a nega tive force, "any" marks the exclusion of all. "He did it with

out any hesitation." "We can not make any difference between you." So after "scarcely" and comparatives, and in questions where the expected answer is nobody, none. "Scarcely any one." "He is taller than any of his schoolfellows." "Can any man believe this?" 2. It is sometimes equivalent to "any you please;" "every body;" as,

"any body can do that." 3. Again, it is sometimes indefinite, being equivalent to some one; as, "Shall we tell any body of our misfortunes ?"

SUCH, Anglo-Saxon Svilc, Old Saxon Sulic, German Solch. "Objects of importance must be portrayed by objects of importance; such as have grace, by things graceful.”. Campbell's Rhet., i., 2. Such here supplies the place of a noun, though it retains its adjectival character, and the noun may be added.

AUGHT, Anglo-Saxon Aht, auht, awuht. It means any thing. It is sometimes improperly spelled ought. It is etymologically related to whit. The word naught is aught preceded by the Negative particle. "Doth Job serve God for naught?"not any thing=nothing.

SOME, Anglo-Saxon Sum. "Some to the shores do fly, some to the woods." In cases like this it has a Pronominal character. "Some men and some women were present." Here some is adjectival. "Some with numerals is used to signify about. Some fifty years ago." Objections have been made to this phraseology; but it is a good old Saxon idiom. "Sum is often combined with the Genitive Plural of the Cardinal numbers, and signifies about; as, "Sum ten gear, some ten years."-Rask, p. 61.

FORMER, LATTER; the one denotes priority, the other posteriority. Their nouns are frequently understood. Used substantively in the singular, they have a regular Genitive; as, "The former's phlegm, the latter's vivacity."

BOTH, Anglo-Saxon Butu, Danish Baade. "Abraham took sheep and oxen and gave them to Abimelech, and both of them made a covenant." Here both is the representative of Abraham and Abimelech. "He will not bear the loss of his rank, because he can bear the loss of his estate; but he will bear both, because he is prepared for both." Here, too, it is Pronominal in its character. "To both the preceding kinds the term burlesque is applied."-Campb. Rhet., i., 2. Here it is Adjectival.

OWN, Anglo-Saxon Agen, from agan, to possess. In its Adjectival character it is intensive, being added to words to render the sense emphatical; as, "This is my own book.”

In the following example it has a pronominal character: "That they may dwell in a place of their own."-2 Sam., ch. vii. In this example a substantive can not follow own.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE VERB.

§ 251. I. THE VERB is a word which can by itself form both the Copula and Predicate of a proposition, or else only the Copula of a proposition; as, "The sun shines;" "God is great." Here the Common verb shines, for grammatical purposes is shining, forms both the Copula and Predicate of the first proposition; and the Substantive Verb is forms only the Copula of the second proposition. See § 259, 401..

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II. Or a verb is a word by which something can be asserted of a person or thing; as, "John reads." Here the act of reading is asserted of John. As the verb essentially expresses assertion, without which there could be no communication of thought, it was regarded by the ancient grammarians as the very soul of a sentence, and called verbum= the word. The Verb, the verb only, predicates. Chinese call verbs live words, nouns dead words.

The

III. Or a verb is a word which expresses an action which is affirmed of a subject; as, The rose blooms; God is loved. According to Becker, all notions expressed by language are either notions of an activity, or notions of an existence. The notion of an activity is expressed by a Verb when the activity is contemplated as bearing on the relations of Person, Time, and Mode to the speaker; as, He drank; he fled; the tree grows. It is expressed by an Adjective when it is not thus related to the speaker; as, A drunken man; a flighty thought; a great tree. The notion of an existence is ex

pressed by a Substantive; as, A drinker; a flock; the growth. Verbs are Notional words, with the exception of the verb to be, and certain auxiliary verbs. See § 134.

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In favor of this view may be argued,

1. That most verbs actually express action in the ordinary or colloquial sense of that term.

2. That verbs now apparently expressing rest or inaction originally denoted action; thus, standing was conceived of as a rising up; reposing as a putting one's self down.

3. That every verb, in a philosophical view, whether looked at physically or metaphysically, expresses motion or action. 4. That this definition of a verb forms a good contrast to that of the substantive, as expressing mere existence.

IV. Current definitions of the verb are the following: 1. A verb is a part of speech which predicates action, state, or existence of its subject. 2. A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer.

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252. 1. Verbs are divided into two classes: I. TRANSITIVE. II. INTRANSITIVE. This is not so much a division of verbs as a division of their uses, for many verbs are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive.

2. Verbs are also divided into, I. Those of the ANCIENT or STRONG Conjugation, commonly called Irregular. II. Those of the MODERN or WEAK Conjugation, commonly called Regular. The terms Strong and Weak are used by Grimm.

3. Verbs have also been divided into Principal and Auxiliary Verbs; Substantive and Adjective Verbs; Simple and Derived Verbs.

Besides these there are Defective Verbs, Impersonal Verbs, Reflective Verbs.

TRANSITIVE VERBS.

§ 253. Verbs are called TRANSITIVE if their notion or idea s incomplete without the supplementary notion of an object; is, "He struck." Here the meaning of struck is incomplete, for it has no object.

1. Transitive Verbs express an assertion in two forms, called the ACTIVE VOICE and the PASSIVE VOICE.

"He

2. The term transitive signifies passing over. struck the boy." Here something is supposed to pass over

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