The first is expressed in English by the Auxiliary verb have, and the passive participle in the Accusative case and neuter gender of the Singular Number. See § 529. The Greek expresses this by the reduplicate Perfect: Térvpa= I have beaten. If a particular time is mentioned, the tense must be the Past; as, "I finished the work last week." "I have seen my friend last week," is not correct English. “J'ai vu mon ami hier," is good French; but "I have seen my friend yesterday," is not good English.

$263. V. The PAST PERFECT denotes past time that precedes some other past time. Of this there are two forms: 1. "I had written the letter before he arrived." This is the Simple form, and represents the action as past before some other past time specified. 2. "I had been writing before he arrived." This is the Progressive form, and represents that the action was going on before another action took place.

§ 264. VI. The FUTURE PERFECT denotes future time that precedes some other future time. Of this there are two forms 1. "I shall have written the letter before the mail is closed." This is the Simple form, and denotes an action which will be past at a future time specified. 2. "I shall have been writing an hour before the mail is closed." This is the Progressive form, and represents that an action will be going on before a certain other future action will take place.

There are other grammatical forms for expressing future time; as, "I am going to write ;" "I am about to write." In the sentence "I have to pay a sum of money to-morrow," there is implied a present necessity to do a future act. The substantive verb, followed by an adjective verb, forms another idiomatic expression of future time; as, "John is to command a regiment."

§ 265. Of the two examples at the head of this section, I strike, I struck, the first implies an action taking place at the time of speaking, the second marks an action that has already taken place. These two notions of present and past time, being expressed by a change of form, are etymologically true Tenses. They are the only true Tenses (i. e., on the ground of Inflection) in the language. In I was beating, I have beaten, I had beaten, and I shall beat, a difference

of time is expressed; but as it is expressed by a combination of words, and not by a change of form, no true Tenses are constituted.

§ 266. In Greek the case is different: TúnTw (typtô)=I beat; етνптоν (еtypton)=I was beating; rvpw (typso)=I shall beat; &тvya (etypsa)=I beat; rérvoa (tetyfa)=I have beaten; ¿TεTúþεìv (etetufein)=I had beaten. In these words we have of the same Mode, of the same Voice, and the same Conjugation six different Tenses, whereas in English, by inflection, there are but two.

MODES OF THE VERB.

§ 267. MODE denotes those forms which the Verb assumes in order to express the relation of reality as conceived of by the speaker. See § 270. It shows the manner, Latin modus, in which an attribute is asserted of the subject.

I. The INDICATIVE Mode expresses direct assertion or interrogation; as, "He teaches," "Do they learn?" It is used for actual existence.

II. The SUBJUNCTIVE Mode expresses conditional assertion; as, "If he were there;" "Though he write." It is used for doubtful existence.

III. The POTENTIAL Mode expresses assertions implying possibility, contingency, or necessity; as, "He can write;" "Ha may go;" "He must submit." It is used for possible or necessary existence.

IV. The IMPERATIVE Mode expresses the will of the speak er; as, "Depart thou;" "Let us stay;" "Go in peace." This is used for desired existence.

V. The INFINITIVE Mode is a form of the verb which is not limited to any particular subject; as, To rest; to learn. It is used for existence in general. It partakes of the nature

of an abstract noun.

§ 268. Besides these the Participle has been by some considered as a mode of the verb partaking of the nature of the Adjective, just as the Infinitive mode partakes of the nature

of a noun.

Indicative, from the Latin Indicare, to express or indicate simply and absolutely. Subjunctive, from Subjungere,

to subjoin, because the tenses of the subjunctive mode are generally subjoined to other verbs. Imperative, from Imperare, to command. Potential, from Potentialis, Posse, to be able. Infinitive, from Infinitus, unlimited, from its not being limited to a particular subject as to person or number.

THE ANGLO-SAXON MODES.

§ 269. The Anglo-Saxon has four modes of the Verb, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive, for which there were corresponding Inflections.

Lufa pu, love thou.

Lufias ge, love ye.

THE

Luf-ian or igean, to love.

Tó luf-ienne, -igenne, to love. Luf-iende, loving. Luf-od, loved.

§ 270. In English the distinction between the Modes is very slight. The only true Subjunctive Inflection is that of were and wert, as opposed to the Indicative forms was and wast. See 290. If he speak, as opposed to if he speaks, is characterized by a negative sign only, and consequently is no true example of a Subjunctive. Be, as opposed to am, in the sentence if it be so, is an uninflected word used in a limited sense, and consequently no true example of a Subjunctive. The distinction between the Subjunctive forms and the Indicative is likely to pass away. See § 40.

Between the Second Person Singular Imperative, speak, and the Second Person Singular Indicative, speakest, there is a difference in form. Still, as the Imperative form speak is distinguished from the Indicative form speakest by the negation of a character rather than by the possession of one, it can not be said, on the ground of inflection, that there is in

English an Imperative Mode. The Anglo-Saxon has dis tinct forms for the Imperative; the English has not.

§ 271. It is questionable whether any thing has been gained to the language by the introduction of the Potential Mode. It has taken its place extensively in English Grammar as one of the forms of the verb. Still, it should be remembered that, in the language of Lowth, the mere expres sion of will, possibility, liberty, obligation, belong to the Indicative Mode, just as all direct assertion belongs to that mode. In the forms of expression I can go, we may ride, he must obey, I, we, and he are respectively nominative to can, may, and must, and govern go, ride, and obey in the Infinitive Mode. See § 520. In expressions like "if I should go," "if I may ride," we have the Potential form (or Indicative) under a condition=the Subjunctive mode.

§ 272. Instead of the terms Subjunctive and Potential, it has been proposed by some grammarians, as simplifying the subject, to substitute for them both the term Conjunctive, to designate the two methods of connecting sentences. Thus, when an uncertain sentence is connected with a certain sentence, If it rain, I shall not go, and when two uncertain sentences are connected together, If it rain, I may not go, the term Conjunctive is applied to each of the three uncertain sentences, instead of the term Subjunctive to the first two and the term Potential to the last, I may not go. According to this view, the Indicative asserts simply; the Conjunctive asserts with modifications. The appropriateness of the term Conjunctive is derived from the circumstance that the contingency is usually marked by a Conjunction (such as if, though, that, except, until), which connects the dependent sentence with its principal.

CONNECTION BETWEEN NOUN AND VERB.

§ 273. In order to understand clearly the use of the socalled Infinitive Mode in English, it is necessary to bear in mind two facts: one, a matter of Logic; the other, a matter of History.

I. In the way of Logic, the difference between a Noun and a Verb is less marked than it is in the way of Grammar

Grammatically, the contrast is considerable. The inflection of Nouns expresses the idea of Sex as denoted by Gender, and of relation in place as denoted by Cases. That of Verbs rarely expresses Sex, and never Position. On the other hand, however, it expresses what no Noun ever does or can express, e. g., the relation of the agent to the individual speaking by means of Person; the time in which acts take place by means of Tense; and the conditions of their occurrence by means of Mode. The idea of Number is the only one that, on a superficial view, is common to those two important parts of Speech.

=

A Noun de

mo

II. Logically, the contrast is inconsiderable. notes an object of which either the senses or the intellect can take cognizance, and a Verb does no more. To move tion; to rise rising; to err = error; to forgive-forgiveness. The only difference between the two parts of speech is this, that whereas a Noun may express any object whatever, Verbs can only express those objects which consist in an action; and it is this superadded idea of action that superadds to the Verb the phenomena of Tense, Mode, Person, and Voice; in other words, the phenomena of Conjugation.

III. A Noun is a word capable of declension only. A Verb is a word capable of declension and conjugation also. The fact of Verbs being declined as well as conjugated must be remembered. The Participle has the declension of a Noun Adjective; the Infinitive Mode the declension of a Noun Substantive. Gerunds and Supines, in languages where they occur, are only names for certain cases of the Verb.

IV. Although in all languages the Verb is equally capable of declension, it is not equally declined. The Greeks, for in

stance, used forms like

in Greek may account for this.

V. Returning, however, to the illustration of the Substantival character of the so-called Infinitive Mode, we may easily