the plains of Leipsic, where he arrived October 13. Here Schwartzen berg had already commenced a reconnoisance against the king of Naples, meanwhile Augereau's division had been greatly reinforced; and, as he had probably thought he had deceived the crown-prince and Blucher by movements made on the other side of Wittenberg, and that he had gained so much time that he could meet the great Bohemian army alone in a decisive engagement, he did not delay to encounter it in the spacious plain near Leipsic. The engagement commenced about nine o'clock in the morning of October 16. After severely destructive attacks on both sides, Napoleon had gained some ground in the centre and on the left wing But the duke of Ragusa, who occupied a wide line to the north of Leipsic, was unexpectedly attacked by Blucher with the greatest impetuosity, totally defeated, after an obstinate resistance, and driven back in disorder On the 17th Napoleon negotiated through Count Meerveldt, who had been taken prisoner, for liberty to retire undisturbed, and for an armistice, both of which proposals were the less listened to, because the allies could now conduct their operations with a mutual understanding, the crownprince of Sweden having joined Blucher with upwards of sixty thousand men, and General Bennigsen, with almost as many, being hourly expected from Grimma. On the 18th of October, therefore, a fearful conflict took place at Leipsic. The French fought with desperation, to save their honour and secure their retreat, which had been commenced at daybreak; but on the following day their retreat was converted into a flight, and a general overthrow. This battle emancipated Germany. Bavaria had already renounced the confederation of the Rhine, and united with Austria. All the German princes followed this example, with the exception of the king of Saxony, Jerome of Westphalia, and the prince-primate. After the loss of many thousands, in prisoners and wounded, Napoleon, assailed or harrassed in every quarter, was obliged, in order to gain the Rhine, to sustain a desperate conflict with the Bavarians and Austrians stationed at Hanau. The allies made a halt on the Rhine, in order to unite the forces of liberated Germany with those furnished by England and Holland. Even the Danes, who had been forced to form the closest union with Napoleon, in consequence of the hard terms proffered them by England and Sweden in the spring of 1813, were obliged to concede all that they had formerly refused.

French affairs in Spain had also taken a most unfavourable turn. Marshal Jourdan had been totally defeated by Wellington at Vittoria, had been forced back to the Pyrenees with the loss of his artillery, and, subsequently, Soult and Suchet had with difficulty kept the English from the soil of France itself; and it was consequently necessary to send thither new forces. The French senate, always before obsequious enough, now ventured to remonstrate, when repeated decrees of the emperor had already ordered the levy of nearly half a million of conscripts, the organization of cohorts of national guards, and the formation of four armies of reserve. Still stronger terms of dissatisfaction were used by some of the deputies; and, in consequence of the general indignation at the enormous expenditure of human life, great difficulties now presented themselves in the formation of a new French army. Beyond the Rhine, fron. Switzerland to Holland, the allies found but little resistance. They made themselves masters of all the passes to Italy, of the city of Geneva, of the roads over the Simplon and St. Bernard, and early in January they occupied a new line, covered on the left by the Seine, on the right by the Meuse, in Alsace, Lorraine, Deux-Ponts, &c., with the exception of the invested fortresses. Napoleon had issued a proclamation for a kind of general rising of the people: but measures of this kind, which worked wonders in the revolution, were now almost wholly disregarded. Meanwhile the allied troops steadily advanced, and though several engagements

took place, in no instance had a French general strength enough to maintain the most important points against the overwhelming force of the invaders.

On the 1st of February was fought the sanguinary battle of Brienne, He in which Napoleon lost 12,000 prisoners and seventy-three cannon. had 70,000 men in the field, and no blame can attach to either them or their commander for the loss of the day; the most desperate resistancé on the part of the troops, and the most active superintendance on the part of Napoleon being everywhere apparent. Eager to improve their first victory on French ground, the allies pushed forward, and divided their forces, of which Napoleon, with great boldness and address, took advantage. But, though he had received considerable reinforcements from the army in Spain, he was too much enfeebled to prevent the Russian, Austrian, and Prussian commanders from proceeding towards Paris in two large columns, one on the Seine, the other on the Marne. The operations of the allied troops from this period having been already detailed, we deem it unnecessary to pursue the subject further. In the transactions which took place relative to the abdication of Bonaparte, the occupation of Paris, &c., the emperor Alexander took the lead; and with magnanimity, as if oblivious of the wrongs his own country had received, he endeavoured to allay those feelings of vengeance in some of his allies which, without such humane consideration, might have laid the French capital As it was conin ashes, and given rise to a new and more dreadful war.

sidered necessary that the boundaries of each sovereign should be permanently fixed, a congress of the principal powers was held at Vienna. But before any final arrangements were made, the congress was hastily broken up, in consequence of the sudden return of Bonaparte from Elba to France. The allied armies of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, once more prepared to take the field; but the English, Belgians, and Prussians, at the battle of Waterloo, decided the fate of Europe, and of him who had so long been its disturber.

It is now necessary to revert to the affairs of Russia, in connection with the Ottoman empire, as they existed previous to the French invasion. It had been a favourite scheme of ambition with Catharine II. to expel the Turks from Europe; with that view she had sought every opportunity, however frivolous the pretence, of engaging them in hostilities; and as the Turks were generally worsted, Russia generally acquired some new territory, and a greater influence over the Sublime Porte. The Russians had also been at war with Persia. By the peace of Bucharest, signed in May, 1812, the former power ceded to Moldavia as far as the Pruth, Bessarabia and the chief mouths of the Danube: the peace of Tiflis, in 1813, with the latter, gained her, all the territory west of the Caspian sea, between the Kur and the Anaxes, Georgia having been united before with Russia; and on the east coast as far as the Gulf of Balkan, with the exclusive navigation of the Caspian sea. The Russian empire having become so extensive and formidable, Alexander took every means, by founding and supporting the holy alliance, to maintain his high position. After the conquest of Aix-la-Chapelle, Russia appears to have discovered that her influence over Europe would be best promoted by the continuance of peace, which would enable her to develope those resources which make a country formidable in war; and to that end Alexander re-organized almost the whole of the interior of his empire.

Among other matters that were settled at the congress of Vienna, it was determined that Poland should be annexed to the Russian empire, with a separate government; and Alexander was accordingly crowned king of Poland. The remainder of his reign was, spent in the most laudable exertions for the benefit of his people. The abuses which were practised in all departments, civil, military, and judicial, required a degree of reso

lution and perseverance to correct; and the emperor set about this work of reformation with all the honesty and zeal of a patriot prince. He made frequent tours through his provinces, in order to be an eye-witness of the local administration of the laws; and he neglected no opportunity of improving the general condition of his subjects, and of abolishing vassalage; but the resistance made to his benevolent exertions in this latter measure prevented him from carrying out his intentions to any great extent. He, however, encouraged the arts and literature, and effected many salutary changes in the condition of the people, while he patronized commerce encouraged manufacturers, and promoted the diffusion of knowledge, by means of the press, which was protected by a careful censorship from the pestilent effects of licentiousness in morals, and of sedition in politics.

The emperor Alexander died December 1, 1825, at Taganrock, a town founded by Peter the Great, on the sea of Azof. He was succeeded by Nicholas, the grand duke Constantine, afterwards viceroy of Poland, having renounced his right to the throne of Russia, according to a previous arrangement. A conspiracy soon after broke out, when the regiments of the guard, who had taken the oath to Constantine immediately after Alexander's death, refused to take the oath to Nicholas, and a tumult ensued, which was suppressed at last by the mingled firmness and moderation of the emperor. On the matter being afterwards investigated, it appeared that it was the result of a conspiracy which had existed for many years; and different punishments were assigned, according to the degrees of guilt of the parties implicated; some being executed, some banished to Siberia, and others imprisoned; but the far greater number were pardoned. Soon after Alexander's death, a war with Persia broke out, in consequence of disputes arising from the non-settlement of certain boundaries between Russia and that power. Abbas Mirza, who had just then succeeded to the throne of Persia, thinking the moment propitious for attacking Russia, at once marched over the frontier, and advaced as far as Elizabethpol; but the Persians were defeated and driven back. War was now immediately declared against them, and general Paskewitsch, being appointed commander-in-chief, passed the Araxes, tock several strong fortresses, entered ancient Media with no opposition, and forced the shah to sue for peace, compelling him to give up an extensive territory on the south-western shore of the Caspian sea, with some provinces on the Caucasus, besides making them pay the expenses of the war, and the losses by the invasion.

The Caucasus consists of two parallel chains of mountains in western Asia, covering the country between the Black and the Caspian seas. They extend nearly seven hundred miles, and are rendered almost impassable by rushing torrents, steep precipices, and frightful avalanches. The summits of these mountains are covered with perpetual snows, and are mostly barren; but the lower parts are clothed with thick forests, and the plains abound in orchards, vineyards, corn-fields, and pastures. It comprises the provinces of Georgia, Circassia, Melitenia, Great and Little Kabarda, Daghestan, which is the mountain-land bordering on the Caspian sea, and Schirvan, called the Paradise of Roses, from the abundance of beautiful flowers which grow there spontaneously. The tribes who dwell in the higher regions of the Caucasus, especially the Lesghians, who inhabit the most eastern parts, live by plundering their neighbours, and are held in such terror, that several tribes purchase immunity from their depredations by paying them tribute.

The war with Persia was scarcely ended when Turkey engaged the attention of the Russian government, and the Russian minister, Nesselrode, declared to France and Great Britain, that his sovereign must have satisfaction for the violation of the treaty of Ackermann, and for the

hatti-sneriff of December, 1820, which the Porte had addressed to all the pachas, and which contained many offensive charges against Russia. A declaration of war was accordingly issued by the emperor, and on the 7th of May, 1828, the Russian forces passed the Pruth, to the number of 15,000 men, including persons of all descriptions attached to the camp. Count Wittgenstein was commander-in-chief. In a fortnight the Russians had possession of several towns and fortresses, and the Turks retired into the fortified mountain-position of Choumla, which was the centre of their operations. The Russians at length took Prawodi, the key of the Balkan; and their next aim was to gain possession of Varna. To carry on a siege in a vast and almost uninhabitable country like Bulgaria, under the fatal influence of the climate, the difficulty was great; but in proportion as the difficulties were great, so were the exertions of the besiegers, and after it had been invested both on the land and sea sides, breaches were made, and a body of troops forced their way into the city. Terrified by this, the enemy gave up all further resistance, and the campaign in Asia proved successful. The predatory population on the Caucasian mountains submitted to Russia. The army under Count Paskewitch forced its way from Caucasus and Ararat into Asiatic Turkey, and took by storm the strong fortress of Khara, the central point of Turkish Armenia, together with the enemy's camp. After this, several other fortresses fell into their hands, so that beside obtaining possession of Mingrelia and Imiretia, the whole pachalic of Bajasid, as far as the banks of the Euphrates, was conquered. In Europe the success of the Russians was more equivocal; the results of the whole, however, were important. In Europe and in Asia, Russia had gained two Turkish principalities and three pachalics, fourteen fortresses, and three castles.

The Russian emperor had repeated his inclination for peace with the Porte, on terms of indemnification for the expenses of the war, and se. curity against future injuries; but the Porte had refused. On the con trary, Mahmoud announced a new campaign, with the words, "Honour and independence are worth more than life.” Hitherto the negotiations had been carried on in Constantinople, with the reis effendi, by the minister of the Netherlands. He had delivered to the reis effendi the manifesto of France, Great Britain, and Russia, (of August 11, 1828), which made known to the Porte the motive and object of the French expedition against the Morea. The Prussian ambassador likewise advised the Porte to yield; but no representations would induce the sultan to do so, and preparations for another campaign were made with unusual vigour. In the beginning of 1829, General Diebitsch was appointed commander-inehief of the Russian forces; and although the Turkish army was greatly reinforced, and under the command of officers of high renown and unuestionable bravery, the Russian generals Diebitsch and Paskewitch proved too much for them. The latter took possession of Erzerum, the centre of the Turkish power in Asia. The seraskier, commander-in-chief of the whole Turkish army, and governor of all Asiatic Turkey, was taken prisoner, together with four principal pachas, and 150 pieces of cannon. But the sharpest contest of the Asiatic campaign was occasioned by the attempt of the pacha of Vau to retake the fortress of Bajasid. The attack was made with 7000 infantry and 5000 cavalry, aided by the fire from a battery, on a range of rocks, which swept the Russian troops on the flank and rear, and the fire of musketry from the inhabitants of the Tarsar quarter of the place. After thirty-two hours of incessant fighting, the Turks retreated. The career of Paskewitch in this campaign had been one of continual success; and such had been his preceding campaign in Persia.

The campaign in the European provinces was still more successful. Several battles were fought in the spring, in which the Russians under

Diebitsch generally had the advantage, European tactics giving him a decided superiority. At length Silistria surrendered, and the garrison of 10,000 men became prisoners of war; 220 pieces of cannon, eighty standards, and the whole of the Turkish flotilla, falling into the hands of the Russians. Diebitsch now hastened to cross the Balkan, and continued his march without any serious obstacles, except such as the excessive heat of the weather, &c., presented, till he reached Adrianople, which he took on the 20th of July. Foiled at every point, the Porte was now ready to commence negotiations; and accordingly a treaty of peace was signed, the principal points of which were, the cessation of hostilities; the restoration by Russia of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, and of all the towns occupied by the Russians in Bulgaria and Romelia; the settlement of the boundaries between the two powers in Europe and Asia; the provisions for the religious liberty, independent administration, and free trade of the people of Moldavia and Wallachia; freedom of commerce to Russian subjects throughout the Ottoman empire, as secured by former treaties; free commerce and navigation of the Black Sea to all nations at peace with the Porte; the stipulation of the Porte to pay 1,500,000 ducats of Holland to Russia within eighteen months, as an indemnification for losses of Russian subjects, and a further sum, such as should be agreed on, as an indemnity for the expenses of the war; with the accession of the Porte to the arrangements of Russia, Great Britain, and France, respecting Greece. Thus the emperor Nicholas, according to the pledge he had given to his allies at the commencement of the war, stopped short in the career of conquest, when he had obtained the objects for which the war was professedly undertaken.

THE HISTORY OF POLAND.

Most countries have some positive origin attributed to them, and nanded down to present times by tradition, although no trace of a written history may be found; it is not so, however, with Poland. In the time of the Romans it is likely to have been an unexplored part of the great Hyrcanian forest; and such inhabitants as it contained probably belonged to the Sarmatians, a nation of barbarians more fierce and savage than any of the other hordes with whom the civilized conquerors of Europe had to contend in their work of universal subjugation. But be that as it may, it seems clear that Poland either afforded no materials for the historian, or the country produced no writer to record its history, for a considerable time after the other nations of Europe emerged from obscurity. It appears, indeed, that an army of Sclavonians, under the command of Lesko, took possession of the country, A. D. 550, and that this leader became the first of a race of kings, who held the sovereign power for a century.

The next dynasty of kings is distinguished by the name of its first sovereign, and called the dynasty of Piast but nothing worthy of notice is preserved, until Jagellon, grand duke of Lithuania, obtained the sove reignty of Poland in the year 1385. On his being elected king, he renounced the doctrines of paganism, to which he had before adhered, and embraced Christianity; from which time it spread rapidly among the