can be distinguished; the building of great walls and many-roomed dwellings shows increased power in dealing with material; walls ornamented in painted stucco, an increased use of bronze, and the introduction of the potter's wheel and painted decoration on the vases mark the transition from the rude civilization of the end of the Stone Age to the real splendor of the succeeding epoch. This period has sometimes been designated as that of the "Cycladie," or "Island," or "Carian" civilization, the former names being derived from the region where it has been best preserved, the last from a somewhat doubtful ethnological attribution. See MELOS; THERA; TROY.

In the West this period is represented by the pre-Sicel, and first Sicel graves in Sicily, and the earlier remains of Italy. It may be noted here that the developments of the Bronze Age in Italy are independent of the Mycenæan Period. The products of Mycenæan art reached the West only as importations, and apparently late and in small quantities.

II. MYCENEAN PERIOD. The remains of this period were first brought prominently into view by the excavations of H. Schliemann at Mycenæ, and from this fact is derived the name adopted for this civilization. It is not to be supposed that Mycenae was the centre from which the art spread, though the characteristic series of vases is more completely illustrated in Argolis than at any other single site. The characteristic products of this period have been found on the mainland of Greece in Boeotia (Orchomenus, Gha), Attica (Athens, Eleusis, Sparta, Thoricus), Thessaly (near Volo), and especially in Argolis and Laconia (Amycle); Delphi and the island of Cephallenia have also yielded Mycenæan remains. It will be noticed that these sites are for the most part in eastern and southern Greece. The same civilization is found on Melos, Thera, Amorgos, and at Ialysus, on Rhodes; but the most splendid remains are in Crete, which plays a prominent part in the heroic legends, and is now known to have had cities and palaces far finer than anything yet found on the mainland. Troy is also a Mycenæan site; but with this exception Asia Minor has not been brought within this culture.

The remains of this period fall naturally into several groups: (1) The fortifications, represented by the walls of the sixth city at Troy, a large part of those of Mycenæ, and especially the well-known wall surrounding Tiryns, as well as the defenses of many other less important sites. These walls are built of huge stones, roughly hewn, and laid in clay mortar. In general, there is only one great gate, though there are also smaller gates, or mere sally-ports. The gate is flanked by a large tower, and is often approached by a narrow and crooked passage. (2) The dwellings, chiefly the royal palaces. The latter are best seen at Tiryns, Mycenæ, and, above all, at Cnossus, in Crete. The usual plan shows a court, on one side of which is situated a great hall, containing the hearth, and approached through a vestibule. Around this hall and the court is arranged a complex of lesser rooms, and the whole structure is carefully placed inside the great fortification, which in general seems to have contained little but the residence of the ruler and his immediate dependents. The palace was built of wood and sun-dried brick, but the

walls were stuccoed and painted, and metal incrustations, and decorations of carved alabaster and glass paste were often employed. The palace at Cnossus has yielded remarkable specimens of wall painting, and its plan shows a much greater extent than is found in Greece, but it is not as yet (1902) wholly cleared. The smaller houses found in some places, as at Melos, Troy, Crete, and Mycenæ, also show the large hall and its vestibule, but as a rule no further rooms. Additional accommodation seems to have been ob tained by juxtaposition of unconnected buildings, rather than by a series of connected rooms. (3) The tombs form the third great class of Mycenæan buildings. The most important are the "bee-hive" tombs, of which the most notable examples are those of Mycena, and the so-called "Treasury" at Orchomenus, in Boeotia. These tombs are built of huge, carefully squared stones, laid in regular circles, so arranged that each course projects inward beyond the course below, thus making the interior a dome. The whole structure is held together by the weight of the earth outside, and therefore the side of a hill is usually hollowed out to receive the building, which is wholly concealed by the replaced earth. The approach is always by a long passage, with side walls of stone, and the façade of the tomb was richly decorated with columns and adornments in colored stone, elaborately carved. The interior was carefully smoothed and decorated with metal plates or rosettes. In some cases a small side chamber for the dead is found. Besides the great tombs, a series of similar grave chambers, cut in the rock, or excavated in the hillsides, and approached by similar passages, show the common Mycenaæan mode of disposing of the dead. Burning seems to have been unknown at this time. (4) It is, however, in the products of its art, even more than in its architectural triumphs, that this period is sharply characterized. The excavation of Mycenæ and Tiryns yielded a series of painted vases, which still occupy a place by themselves in the history of Greek ceramics. Made on the wheel, of graceful form, they are decorated with marine plants and animals, birds, and, in the later work, rude drawings of men and animals. The decoration is by means of a "glaze" paint, varying from brown to black, or under intense heat becoming red. (For details, see VASES.) Even more marked are the gems and gold work of this time. The drawing is often rude, but the spirit and vigor are astonishing. The gold cups of Vaphio, with scenes in relief representing the capture and taming of wild bulls, shows an art which is not that of Egypt or Assyria, but, whatever its ori gin, has much of the quality which distinguishes the later Hellenic products. More Oriental in technique and decoration are the sword blades, inlaid with scenes of hunting and wild life, which much resemble objects found in Egyptian tombs. Of larger works of art, the noble lions over the gate of Mycena, and the rudely carved slabs which once marked the site of shaft graves, were for a long time the only representatives, if we omit the purely ornamental spirals and other motives forming part of the decoration of the façades. Crete, however, has yielded reliefs of bulls and other sculptures not yet published, which are said to show that the Mycenæan art did not confine its skill to small objects only. Space does not permit a detailed de

ARCH. cultural Laborers' Union. In 1873 he visited Canada and the United States to study the condition and prospects of labor, and the question of emigration. In 1885 he was elected to Parlia ment from Northwest Norfolk as a Liberal; was

defeated in 1886, and reëlected in 1892 and in 1895. In 1898 his autobiography, edited by the Countess of Warwick, was published.

ARCHÆAN (är-ke'an) SYSTEM (from Gk. dpxalos, archaios, ancient). A name proposed by J. D. Dana, in 1872, for the entire series of crystalline rocks that forms the oldest underlying fundamental complex of the earth's crust. Earlier names applied to this series were: Azoic, Primitive, Huronian, and Laurentian, of American geologists, and Urgebirge and Primitivge birge of the still earlier Germans, Werner and

Lehmann. The rocks of this system consist of a complex series of gneisses, granites, and schists, with a host of associated massive igneous intrusions, all of which have suffered profound disturbances and metamorphism to such an extent that it is extremely doubtful if at the present day there exist any traces of their original characters. They form, as a rule, the cores of the great mountain masses, and are the original sources from which were derived, by erosion through countless ages, all the forms of later sedimentary rocks, which they underlie with marked unconformity. Various classifications of Archaean rocks have been made in the attempt to organize them into stratigraphic groups, but owing to the complex nature of the series, and to the almost complete absence of reliable data for determining the relative age of the component formations, no one classification has as yet received general recognition. These Archæan rocks of undoubted primeval origin, together with certain others, which because of their probable sedimentary derivation have been separated under the name Algonkian, antedate in respect of the time of their formation the rocks of the Cambrian system, and can be described to better advantage under the title, PRE-CAMBRIAN FORMATIONS, to which article the reader is referred for further information. See also ALGONKIAN SYSTEM; and TONIC.

ARCHEOLOGICAL (är'-kê-ô-lõj′i-kal) INSTITUTE OF AMERICA. A society for the promotion of archæological investigation and research. It was organized in Boston in 1879, and has since established nine affiliated societies, with headquarters in different American cities. The Institute founded the American School of Classical Studies in Athens in 1881; the American School of Classical Studies in Rome in 1895, and the American School in Palestine in 1900. These are supported partly by private subscription and partly by the aid of several American colleges. The Society conducted important excavations of the site of ancient Assos in 1881-83, and has aided the School at Athens in its exca

vation of Grecian sites, notably that of the Heræum, in the Argolid. The official organ of the society is the American Journal of Archaology, a bi-monthly magazine. Besides this the society publishes various papers and supplemental reports, and more important publications are in course of preparation, notably a facsimile reproduction of the Codex Venetus of Aristophanes, and important descriptions of the results of special archæological investigations. The membership of the society is about one thou

VOL. I.-46.

ARCHEOLOGY.

sand. Its presidents have been: Prof. Charles Eliot Norton, 1879-90; Seth Low, 1890-96; Prof. John Williams White (of Harvard), 1896.

ARCHEOLOGY, är'-kê-ōl'-ô-ji (Gk. ȧpxαioMoyía, archaiologia, antiquarian lore, from apxa.os, archaios, ancient + Xoyos, logos, science). The science of antiquities-that is, of the material remains of ancient peoples. But from the fact that in its origin and development it has been primarily and chiefly concerned with the artistic and architectural remnants of the GræcoRoman world, it is often taken to mean the science of Greek and Roman antiquities, in which sense the term will be used in this article, withbetween these monuments and those of the more out losing sight of the connection subsisting ancient peoples to whom they owe in great meas

ure their inception.

As a science, archæology cannot justly be said to have existed before the last century, although the way had been gradually paved for it from sion for the artistic relics of Græco-Roman civilithe time of the Italian Renaissance. The paszation, which at the end of the Fifteenth Century took such surprising hold upon the cultured classes of Italy under the Papal sway, led to the foundation of museums, in which were gathered statues of bronze and marble, vases, inscriptions, gems, jewelry, and coins, affording material for study and comparison. The spoils brought over from Greece by her Roman conquerors, and the mania for collecting treasures from the same source which had been displayed by many Roman amateurs, as well as the great artistic and architectural activity in imperial Rome under the guidance of Greek masters, rendered that city a mine for the early archeologists; and, furthermore, much filtered in from Greece itself. (Cf. Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, Boston and New York, 1889.) must be admitted that these collectors were enthusiastic rather than scientific, and that the works of art discovered were ruthlessly restored to present a pleasing appearance, often at the complete sacrifice of accuracy. Heads and bodies of totally different style were frequently joined in hybrid works which still mislead the uninformed.

It

The father of modern archæology is Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-68) (q.v.), whose writings, although superseded in many points, are still of value, and who, by his genius, marked out the field since so successfully cultivated. He first presented to European scholars an authentic account of the discoveries made in the Campanian city of Herculaneum (q.v.), and, more than all, first wrote a systematic history of ancient art (Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums, 1764; vid. Winckelmann's complete works, edited by Meyer and Schulze, Dresden, 1808-20). By a passage in Winckelmann's writings, Lessing was stimulated to the composition of his great æsthetic essay, "Laocoön,” and Goethe also was powerfully influenced by him. Thus the seed of the new science was planted, to develop after the era of the wars of the French Revolution. Like his predecessors, Winckelmann was able to know Greek art only through the copies of the Roman period, or the few originals of later times; but even through this haze he was able to distinguish some of the characteristics of the period, and his works prepared the way for the