ARCHITECTURE. Saint George's Hall in Liverpool, the Bourse in It Paris, and the great theatre of Bordeaux. is curious to find this Roman style of colonnades and pediments decorating an otherwise severely plain building revived without essential changes at the close of the Nineteenth Century. The reason for it is not far to seek-it is in the impracticability of producing an interesting new style founded upon classical traditions, unless with the willing and continuous labor of several To copy Roman forms has decades at least. proved easy to able and well-taught men, as all that is needed is free expenditure upon the building and the possession by the designer of a number of measured drawings. To found a new style upon it, whether deliberately, as by the careful thought of men who can design and who are also students, or more unconsciously and naturally by the work of uninformed builders who take the details their masters used before them and modify them to suit the new requirements to do either has proved impracticable. The immediate result, chronologically speaking, of the first Neo-Roman revival was the introduction into domestic and civil building of the insignificant architecture known to us all from the abundant remains left from the years between 1830 and 1870. The Hôtel de Ville, in Paris, as it was under Louis Philippe and until its destruction in 1871, contained only the central mass of the building of Henry IV., the wings being wholly of the "bourgeois" and unimpressive style of which we are speaking. The vast structure in Washington occupied by the departments of State, War, and the Navy is an almost perfect example of the class of buildings in question. There was more sincerity in the work of some English architects, apart from the Thus the clubGothic revival named below. houses designed by the elder Charles Barry (Sir Charles), such as the Travellers' and the Reform in Pall Mall, and Bridgewater House, by the same artist, were all built between 1830 and 1850, and all have some architectural character. This epoch saw also the work of King Ludwig I. in Munich, often of a character wholly different from the pseudo-Greek buildings named Thus, the Royal Library was finished before 1843, in a style borrowed from Italian palazzi of the Fifteenth Century, as was also the southern front of the royal palace (Königsbau); and of this time also was the Hauptwache, a reduced copy of the Loggia de' Lanzi at Florence. The buildings of the new Louvre, built during the reign of Napoleon III., just miss this expressionless vulgarity of style; they miss it in that they are large in their parts, built at great cost, and adorned by a school of highly trained architectural sculptors to whom it was impossible to turn out other than interesting Even the dismal Hôtel de Ville above details. mentioned would have had some interest had it been covered with elaborate architectural sculpture of admirable workmanship. The reign of dullness continued until 1860 or later; but there was much that was interesting in the way of individual buildings. The Library of Sainte Geneviève, in Paris, is an example of the very small group of buildings called Neo-Greek-which is a misnomer, pointing rather to the term studies of the founders of the school than to The buildings especially their finished work. under this term, as the library above classed above. VOL. I.-48. ARCHITECTURE. named and the rebuilding of the Palais de Justice, have no Greek character; and even Visconti's tomb of Napoleon I. is rather Neo-Roman -as if a prolongation of the Style Empire rather than a novel departure. Of this epoch, too, are the basilica churches-Saint Vincent de Paul and Notre Dame de Lorette, in Paris, and Saint Boniface, in Munich-buildings of a style most promising to one who hopes for original work in the future, but not as yet carried farther. This epoch, 1830 to 1870, includes also the time of the Gothic revival, properly so called; that is, of the earlier years of that movementof the time when the reformers were full of hope and courage, and believed that the sincerity and the logical construction and decoration of Gothic churches were capable of being reproduced. The intellectual movement assumed that modern churches were cold, devoid alike of ornament and of interest; while the churches of the Fourteenth Century-for it was the later Therefore, those engaged in Gothic which first attracted the student-were full of interest. the movement undertook to study the forms and the details, and to reproduce them exactly for a while, believing that there would come inthe old one revived or some modification of it evitably a Gothic style which would be either still more nearly suited to modern needs. Again, as to civic and domestic buildings, the enthusiasts believed also that these would be far more admirable if they were built as the Fourteenth Century Italians and the Fifteenth admits of all kinds of adornment by means of Century Frenchmen built. Moreover, this style In England, in France, and in Germany, preceding genera the colors of natural material. tions had done little of that; but in Italy they did much, and it was deemed clear that modern architects might study Italian as well as other forms of Gothic. All this can be found at length in the writings of the authors of that timein the work of a host of later writers, men who authors of whom some are still in repute-and also were inspired with the same hope of speedy improvement of the artistic situation. of studies of the past having failed, another was thought sure to succeed; and only after twenty years of effort did it begin to be clear that nothing complete was to come from the Gothic revival. The most costly building of the style was almost the earliest, the great Westminster Palace (q.v. for illustration), designed by the elder Charles Barry, who was knighted as havParliament. This building is studied from the ing been the architect of the home of the British most formal type of the Tudor style, and the enhances the evident formalism of the constantly attempt to cover it with rich decoration only In spite of this, repeated details of ornament. in Germany and in England, the style became almost exclusively ecclesiastical, while the clasFrance it had so little effect upon the strongly sical methods prevailed for civic buildings. In organized and deeply convinced workmen and thinkers of that most artistic of modern nations character were built, either in France itself or that only a few buildings of completely medieval in the countries under immediate French influence. These, when they were built, had, however, this great superiority, that they were completely constructional, vaulted in masonry if not according to the strict Gothic principle of One set rib vaulting, which was as yet barely under stood, and consistent in all their parts, while the English work of the same period and American imitations of it were very apt to be disfigured within by plaster imitations of medieval forms. Since 1870 there have been some evidences of more thoughtful and therefore more original ways of working. There have been some designs which are not based upon buildings of the past more than this, that the old systems of proportion, the old methods of making a building effective, have been in the designer's mind. One of the most carefully studied of these is the great building on the Trocadéro hill at Paris, which was begun about 1875 and finished in time for the great Exposition of 1878. This is a vast building, more than a quarter of a mile, measured in a straight line, from out to out, occupying a most advantageous position and richly adorned by sculpture on a large scale in its immediate surroundings and outskirts rather than in its own walls and doorways. It is not possible to say to what historical style it belongs; it belongs to none. Less entirely free from possible classification under an ancient name is the best of American free work, such as Trinity Church in Boston, which, although entirely Romanesque in spirit, is studied from the Romanesque of Europe, and contains features dimly traceable to French, to Spanish, and to English antiquity, while all are harmonized into a modern design. Such a design, too, was All Souls Church in New York, a study indeed of Italian Romanesque, but as completely a modern design as the Trocadéro Palace itself. So there are some smooth-faced street façades in which, the question being merely to design a front and to arrange the fenestration agreeably, great independence has been shown. Great Britain has been rich in buildings of this sort, for the devotion of many of her best designers to the Gothic revival had at all events given them the habit of constructional designing; they have been, on the whole, far less controlled by tradition than the Frenchmen, while also far less successful in producing buildings of permanent charm such as results from thoroughly matured designing. It is to be noted that a tasteful and satisfactory design is much more quickly got in a style already familiar to the artist and to his critics, the cultivated public. Cultivation in such matters must go far beyond the knowledge gained by travel and by general reading before the student can recognize the attempt at new methods of design and partly judge them. There is, therefore, a very strong inducement to every designer to work on the old lines. The novel systems of building caused by modern scientific advance have not had so much influence upon design as had been anticipated. In France, as early as the middle of the Nineteenth Century, it was seen that wrought-iron was to become an important element in future building, and those who sought to influence for good the designing of the time pointed out many ways in which it could be utilized. At the same time, in the United States, cast-iron in hollow columns and in shells, imitating cut-store work, was introduced; and while the shop fronts of all American cities came to be made of this material, there were also very many façades which, though apparently of stone masonry, were from street level to roof composed ex clusively of a series of cast-iron members held together by riveting. Again, at a later time, when the steel-cage construction for high buildings was introduced, as is shown below, the opportunity for a fresh movement in design seemed to be given; but this was rendered impracticable, partly by the legal requirement that iron should everywhere be protected from the effect of heat in case of conflagration, and partly by the same willingness to repeat old forms under new conditions which had controlled the designing of the cast-iron fronts mentioned above. Still another opportunity seemed to be afforded for the use of ironwork in design; namely, in the buildings of the great expositions, from their commencement in London in 1851 through the entire half-century; but here it has been the exception rather than the rule to base the design upon the ironwork itself. The disposition to make the buildings of one of these great fairs as attractive as possible to a multitude of people, and the need of great haste in their construction, has prevented thoughtful consideration from being given to their design, and the introduction of staff and of plaster boards has facilitated the imitation of recognized architectural forms in mere outside work, in the simulera of architectural structures, supported, indeed, by an iron frame, but not recognizing that framework as part of the building proper. Thus, in one of the great halls of Chicago of 1893, or of Paris in 1900, there was, without, what passed for a cut-stone façade of great elaboration and necessary cost; but within, this character disappeared completely, and the whole interior was a vast cage-a greenhouse as completely non-architectural as the original building in Hyde Park in 1851. Here and there a building has been built constructionally of wrought-iron, having the spaces between the members of its light frame filled in with colored brickwork or the like. Such a building was that of the municipality of Paris at the Exposition of 1878. Its walls were of common hard brick, between uprights and hori zontals of wrought-iron, while its wide and very high doorways were enriched beyond all modern practice by a combination of terracotta in high relief and glazed and richly painted tiles. Similar attempts have not been more numerous during the later years of the century than when the subject first excited attention. Thus, the excellent reading-room of the National Library at Paris, roofed by means of wrought-iron arches carrying cupolas of brickwork faced with tiling, dates from the years before 1865. The most effective ornamentation in the days of the Gothic revival is that of the Oxford Museum, completed about 1860; and the most effective artistic ironwork in any of the larger buildings of the great expositions was that of the square domes of the Paris building of 1889. In this way the few attempts at artistic ironwork have been scattered over a half-century, without resulting in any deter mined school of design. In like manner a few houses have been built fronting on the streets of Paris, and in certain Belgian cities, in which the iron framework is treated on the same sound, constructional principles as those involved in the wooden "half-timbered" construetion of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth centuries. These, however, are very rare exceptions, and the only recent development of the same fine ARCHITECTURE. art treatment of metal has been in the very moderate attempts at logical building of shop fronts, balconies, greenhouses, and shelters above doorways of entrance. The few attempts to treat strictly engineering structures, bridges, and the like, in an artistic way have not been successful. The steel-cage system of building dates from about 1880. It was ten years earlier when it was first noted in the greater cities of the United States that business offices could not be rented to advantage nor large hotels managed successfully without a free use of the elevator (the lift). Offices in the fifth story would not rent at all, nor those on the fourth story easily, unless they had this "elevator service." But with the introduction of elevators into office buildings and hotels there came the easy possibility of building to the height of eight and nine stories instead of to five. Ten years later there appeared suddenly the possibility of building what appeared to be an ordinary edifice of masonry with an actual structure of steel uprights and horizontals firmly bolted together, braced where necessary, and of any conceivable height. All the exterior walls, which were thin and of masonry, were supported by the steel structure, and therefore the walls of the basement story occupied no more horizontal space than those of any upper story; whereas, in a masonry build ing, the walls or piers grow much thicker below as the height increases, and more valuable space in the ground story is lost in the attempt to get less valuable space above. Immediately upon the introduction of the constructional steel frame, buildings were increased in height from nine or ten to twenty or more stories. Elevators were built which ran at greatly increased speed, and these could be arranged in groups, some to run "express" to the twelfth story, perhaps, while others stopped at every floor from the first to the eleventh. In spite of the radical character of these changes in construction and plan, no sign of any architectural result has appeared. This is in part owing to the purely commercial character of the buildings. They must be built as quickly as possible, because of the monthly loss of rent to the owner while his plot of ground remains unproductive, and they must be as inexpensive as possible, in order that the annual rental may bear a better proportion to the cost. Hitherto in the history of the world no architecture of any value has been developed out of any such conditions. The efforts of two or three architects to invest these buildings with a logical and appropriate system of external design are worthy of the highest praise, but have not been followed generally; nor have they produced marked results as yet. In this brief survey there has been no place for the architecture of Farther Asia, of India, and the neighboring provinces; of China and Japan: still less for the architecture of Mexico, Central America, Peru, etc. All these are described under their especial heads. The details of all the styles here mentioned are also given under the separate titles EGYPTIAN ART; BABYLONIAN ART; ASSYRIAN ART; HITTITE ART; PHOENICIAN ART; PERSIAN ART; GREEK ART; ROMAN ART; EARLY CHRISTIAN ART; BYZANTINE ART; MOHAMMEDAŃ ART; ROMANESQUE ART; GOTHIC ART; RENAISSANCE ART; and ARCHITECTURE, Ancient Ameri review is given of all the various classes of titles under which the architectural material in the cyclopædia is classified, such as biographies of architects, descriptions of various kinds of buildings, definitions of terms, etc. This history of the science and material of construction as distinguished from the purely æsthetic side of architecture is given under BUILDING. BIBLIOGRAPHY. An excellent systematic handbook is Rosengarten, A Handbook of Architectural Styles (English translation, London, 1878). More recent, and with references and a larger enumeration of monuments, is Hamlin, A Textbook of the History of Architecture (New York, 1897). The only full history of architecture in English, but uneven and unreliable, is Fergusson, A History of Architecture in All Countries (London, 1893). Lübke, Geschichte der Architektur (Leipzig, 1884), is somewhat antiquated, but more accurate. Ramée, Histoire de l'architecture (Paris, 1885), is still useful. A critical history, from the standpoint of pure construction and form, has now been given in Choisy, Histoire de l'Architecture (Paris, 1899), without an enumeration of monuments, and extremely technical. Two series of separate handbooks, each covering some special style or country, and together forming a complete whole, are being published, one in France, the other in Germany. The general title of the French series is Bibliothèque de l'enseignement des beaux arts (see ART, History of); Laloux, L'Architecture grecque (Paris, 1888); Corroyer, L'Architecture romaine (Paris, 1887), and L'Architecture gothique (Paris, 1891); and Palustre, L'Architecture de la renaissance (Paris, 1892), are the only volumes on architecture alone; but the rest of the field is covered in the architectural sections of the following general volumes: Maspero, Egyptian Archæology (London, 1895); Babélon, Oriental Antiquities, translated by B. T. Evetts (New York, 1889); Martha, L'Archéologie étrusque et romaine (Paris, 1884); Peraté, L'Archéologie chrétienne (Paris, 1892); Bayet, L'Art byzantin (Paris, 1883); and Gayet, L'Art arabe (Paris, 1893), and L'Art persan (Paris, 1895). The German series is more detailed, and is solely architectural. It is the Handbuch der Architektur, ed. Durm (Darmstadt, 1895), and contains special volumes on the theory and practice of architecture, as well as its history. Its four sections are entitled: I. Allgemeine Hochbaukunde (materials; statics; methods; forms); II. Baustile (History, in four sections; Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance, and Modern); Hochbau-Constructionen (elements of structure; foundations; external features; internal features; specific details); Entwerfen, Anlage und Einrichtung der Gebäude (composition; buildings for dwelling and trade; buildings for agricultural and provisioning purposes; publichouses, clubs, and halls, etc.; buildings for health, charity, etc.; educational, scientific, and artistic establishments; civic, governmental, administrative, and military buildings; religious and memorial structures; the city). There are a number of quarto volumes in each of these sections and subsections, several of which have been published. In the historical section the most valuable are: Durm, Die Baukunst der Griechen (Darmstadt, 1892); and Die Baukunst der Etrusker und der Römer (Darmstadt, 1885). The others are: Essenwein, Die |