in the water. Both these drawings are probably borrowed from Bruijn Kops' account. On the Papuan in the boat the turban-like hair is seen standing out, whence these Papuans have got the name of mop-headed Papuans. I suspect that Prichard's figure of such a Papuan is also borrowed from Bruijn Kops.

Bruijn Kops states that the people of New Guinea divide themselves into Papuans and Alforas, of whom the former inhabit the coasts, the latter the mountains and inland district. But it would appear that he has not more closely investigated the ethnological condition of these people, for which reason we can only receive it as probable that they constitute dissimilar tribes. Lieutenant Bruijn Kops praises the Papuans much, as in reality a good people. Theft is with them a grave and very rare offence. They were for several days on board or alongside the ships of the expedition, without anything having been lost from the vessels. They cultivate respect for age, love of children, and fidelity in the marriage state. Chastity is held in great esteem, and is seldom violated. A man is not permitted to have more than one wife, and to her he is bound for life. Concubinage is not permitted. They are particularly fond of strong drinks, but prepare none themselves, so far as Hr. Bruijn Kops could ascertain. But to steal children and to traffic in them is not disgraceful; the captives so taken are treated well, and are restored for ransom. The slave-trade is general, but the slaves are treated well. The same officer describes the following as their mode of punishing offences. An incendiary is condemned, with his whole family, to be the slaves of the proprietor of the burned house. A man who intentionally wounds another must give a slave as compensation. A thief is obliged to restore what he has stolen, with some addition. If injury is done to a garden or plantation, it must be made good. An adulterer is persecuted to death, or until he has satisfied the offended party by a heavy fine. A man who violates a girl is bound to marry her, and to pay the usual dowry of ten slaves to her parents. In case of illicit intercourse, the woman is not punished, and no infamy attaches to her if unmarried. A slave is the standard of value.

The majority of the Dory Papuans are Pagans, a smaller number are Mahommedans, under priests from Ceram and Tidore. The Pagan's idol, "Karwar," is rudely carved in wood, about eighteen inches high, ill shaped, with a very large head, a long pointed nose, and wide mouth well furnished with teeth. The body is usually clothed with a piece of calico, and the head is covered with a handkerchief. Every household has its image. The image must be present on all important occasions, and is consulted as an oracle. They have also "fetishes," most frequently carved images of serpents and lizards, suspended from the roof, and carved on the door-posts. They have a kind of priests, who are at the same time their physicians and fortune-tellers. Their houses are built out in the sea on piles; the outer walls are of planks. According to the drawing given by Earl, they resemble our larger marine stores, with loophole windows. In the middle is a passage, on

each side of which are the apartments. The partition-walls consist of mats, the floor of rough spars laid close together.

These Papuans work in iron and other metals, and practise a limited amount of agriculture, or rather herb-gardening; but no mention is made of rearing domestic animals. Hunting and fishing are the chief occupations of the men; the women manage the household affairs, Both in hunting and in war they use bows and arrows; they do not make use of poisoned arrows. Fish, too, are shot with arrows, speared with lances and lines, and taken in traps.

As the Papuans spend so large a portion of their time on the sea, the canoe constitutes an important part of their property. They have small canoes for children, larger ones for their own daily use, for two rowers, and still larger canoes for twenty rowers. Every such vessel is made of the trunk of a single tree; the large canoes have a mast, with sails of mats. With these imperfect vessels they cannot, how ever, undertake long voyages, on which account the trade in these islands is in the hands of foreigners, and particularly of the Chinese. In the year 1852, the Dutch Government founded an establishment at Port Humboldt, on the northern coast of New Guinea, whence we may hope to obtain more accurate knowledge of the inhabitants of the country.

I have spoken thus fully of these Papuans on the north coast of New Guinea, because our knowledge of them is still involved in so much obscurity. We see, however, that Herr Bruijn Kops considers them to be quite a distinct race from the Alforas. Although the names Papuan and Alfora, or Alfura, are probably employed without any strict ethnographic precision, it seeems to be generally understood that the term Papuans is applied to the inhabitants of the coast, and the word Alforas to those of the inland and mountain districts. The name Papuan is said to be derived from the Malay denomination for frizzled or woolly hair, "rambut pua pua," whence pua-pua, or papua, has been applied to these inhabitants of the coast with woolly and frizzly hair. Alforas is a Portuguese word, properly signifying emancipated slaves. The Portuguese employed this term, for want of any other, for the free inhabitants in the country parts of the Molucca islands, to distinguish them from those living in the towns. However, the above terms are now applied, as has already been mentioned, to the inhabitants of the coast and of the interior, who, as we have seen, are considered to be of totally different races. I would here quote an important expression of Prichard respecting the Alforas of these regions:

"What shall we do with the Alforian race, which has been described as a peculiar and distinct people, with a peculiar type and peculiar form of the skull? It will still always remain one of the most remarkable varieties of mankind. To the same category we must refer the mountaineers from Arsaka in New Guinea, whom Lesson has seen and, as it would appear, accurately described, as well as the other natives of the great continent of Australasia." Latham has in his very learned work, already quoted (p. 213), in his section on "The Papua branch of the Kelænonesian Stock, New

Guinea," adopted two varieties, and given remarkably good profile figures of the forms of their skulls from the 'Voyage sur l'Uranie et la Physicienne, one of which is negro-like, dolichocephalic, the other brachycephalic, as it occurs in the above-mentioned brachycephalic Papuans. Do we not, again, see in these figures, in the dolichocephalic skull that of an Alfora, in the brachycephalic that of a Papuan? The author adds, moreover, that the hair of the dolichocephalic is elaborately frizzled, and that of the brachycephalic simply tied up.

With respect to the place of the brachycephalic Papuans, which is, properly speaking, the object of the present inquiry, I would, lastly, venture to put forward the opinion, that they are most nearly allied to the brown Polynesians, being either their elder stock or their descendants, who, through peculiarity of mode of life and climate, have acquired a peculiar condition. Earl wholly rejects the opinion that they are hybrids, and, it would appear, upon very good grounds.*

Long after the publication of this little work, Prof. Baër, of St. Petersburg, in an essay published this year (Ueber Papuas und Alfuren), has endeavoured to show that Quoy's and Gaimard's Papuan skulls belonged to Malays killed by the Austral negroes, and that no brachycephalic Papuans exist. He therefore restricts the name Papuan, as do the English ethnologists, to dark-coloured Austral dolichocephali.-MS. note by the Author.

(To be continued.)

PART FOURTH.

Chronicle of Medical Science.

HALF-YEARLY REPORT ON MICROLOGY.

By JOHN W. OGLE, M.D., F.R.C.P.

Assistant Physician to St. George's Hospital, and Honorary Secretary to the Pathological Society.

PART I.-PHYSIOLOGICAL MICROLOGY.

EPITHELIAL SYSTEM.

On the Epithelium of the Urinary Passages.-Burckhardt,* after minutely describing his method of preparing the parts for microscopical examination, considers first the normal epithelium, then the physiological changes which it undergoes, and finally, certain of its pathological states. He delineates three distinct cell-layers existing continuously from the opening of the uriniferous tubes of the kidney, along the urinary mucous surface as far as the outlet of the urethra; the only modification which exists in the character of the cells being at the commencement and termination of this tract. The "most superficial" of these three layers of cells consists of round, oblong, or irregularlyformed, flattened bodies. The undermost cells, however, of this layer are much thicker, and differ from the others by reason of their possessing one or more recesses for the reception of the extremities of adjoining cells; the cells, when seen laterally, showing elongated projections from their under surface, overhanging, as it were, these recesses. Of the cells of this upper layer, many have two or more vesicular granular nuclei, the majority only one; they also contain more or less finely granular material.

The "second" layer of cells consists of forms of very great variety, and is clearly separated both from the above layer and the one situated beneath it. Its cells, as contradistinguished from those of the first layer, are placed perpendicularly to the mucous membrane; the rounded cells being small, and containing comparatively large nuclei, and being situated at the deepest parts of the layer, whilst those which are oval are larger, many of them being elongated or caudate, the elongations being directed downwards, and their other extremities forming a continuous level line. In the caudate cells the nucleus is usually single, but at times there are more; and when this is so, they occupy the prolongation, the cell wall at their situation often bulging out. The con tents of the nuclei may be granular or a bright refracting substance. Very often the termination of the elongated part is rounded or blunted, and may contain a clear granule; it may also be bifurcated or otherwise formed. Many of these elongations are of extreme length, as may be seen in the young and very old. The "third" layer of cells consists of an upper and lower portion. In the upper one the cells are rounded and oval, and between them a certain amount of delicate fibre-tissue exists: very often, too, the long projections of cells belonging to the second layer are to be seen fixed among them. In the deeper parts of this layer the connective-tissue is seen to be much more abun

Virchow's Archiv, Band xvii. Hefte 1 and 2, p. 94.

dant, the cells being elongated. Elastic fibres are also visible, and the connective-tissue cells are long and spindle-shaped. In this the third layer, a fine capillary network is seen passing up from the small vessels of the subjacent connective-tissue.*

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

On the Structure of Nerve-fibres.-Messrs. Lister and Turner† communicate the results of their observations made with the view of explaining certain appearances presented by nerve-fibres, as seen in sections of the spinal cord which have been hardened in dilute chromic acid, then immersed in an ammo. niacal solution of carmine, and subsequently soaked in alcohol previous to being rendered clear and transparent by turpentine,-the method of treatment used by Mr. Lockhart Clarke in his examination of nervous structures. Transverse section of the longitudinal fibres of the cord thus prepared, shows itself as a carmine-coloured point, surrounded by a perfectly pellucid and colourless ring. The problem was to determine whether the transparent ring was a mere space, owing to shrinking of the object during preparation, or the white substance of Schwann (the medullary sheath) rendered transparent by the turpentine, the axial cylinder alone, in that case, having received the carmine colour. The authors thought that the question might be solved by preparing in a similar way some nerve, the dimensions of whose fibre could easily be ascertained; and for this purpose they made their comparative observations on the sciatic nerve and spinal cord of a cat. Sections of the hardened nerve were soaked in the carmine solution, and then dried and examined without the application of turpentine. Viewed by transmitted light, it appeared as an opaque, confused mass; but by reflected light, each nerve-fibre presented a carmine spot surrounded by a yellowish-white, somewhat granular ring, evidently composed of some solid material, but plainly corresponding to the pellucid rings in the fore-mentioned preparation treated with turpentine. The dry specimens of the cord gave no satisfactory results, but one specimen was found still remaining moist, and this was examined by transmitted light. In this section, carmine points were seen in the columnar regions, as in Mr. Clarke's preparations, surrounded by rings; but the latter, instead of being transparent like mere spaces, were dead white; the carmine points, on the other hand, appeared in the thinnest parts of the section as illuminated spots amid the general opacity. This was the case with all nerve-fibres which were large enough to be distinguished. It was obvious that in the cord, as in the sciatic nerve, the carmine central part of each fibre was the axial cylinder, and the opaque circumferential portion the medullary sheath; and therefore, that the pellucid rings in preparations treated with turpentine consisted of the white substance rendered transparent by that re-agent. Moreover, to confirm this opinion, the following additional observations were made:-The hardened sciatic nerve, untinted by carmine, was examined, and transverse thin sections showed the nerve-fibres, by transmitted light, as brownish rings with central transparent, colourless spots, whilst by reflecting light the central parts were seen black. In fact, under a low power, the axial cylinders had in these specimens as much the appearance of mere spaces as the medullary sheaths had in preparations of the cord treated with turpentine. But on examination by a higher power, a granular appearance was seen in the central pellucid part, showing that it was really solid: on afterwards treating similar sections with carmine, this part alone became coloured. The high power also brought out an appearance of irregular concentric lines in the brown medullary sheath. See also Report on Pathological Micrology, p. 521. t. Journal of Microscopical Science, Oct. 1859.