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CHAP. III. BEGINNING OF EUROPEAN INFLUENCE.

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among the best rulers, and the other among the grandest monarchs of the age. The reign of the second lasted close up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, which is the limit of time assigned to this historical analysis. Within China proper the administration developed to the utmost all the best characteristics of the Chinese as already described. But it moved in the old grooves, and on lines nearly the same as those which have been already sketched as those existing before A.D. 1200, and before the accession of foreign rulers. Hardly any new principle, political or administrative, was evolved from the busy brains of the Manchus. Once more we see the same centralization, the same constitution, departments, and bureaucracy, the same literary and educational organization, the same official hierarchy, the same provincial subdivisions, as of yore. There is still that sedulous attention to imposing forms, the hollowness of which is attested by the want of result altogether, or by the disappointing character of the result attained. For instance, despite the existence of an enormous statistical machinery, it is impossible to ascertain any large economic fact relating to the empire even during the last century; a financial statement of income and expenditure, provincial and imperial, can hardly be made out; the numbers of the population are returned so badly by census after census that the total cannot be stated within 50,000,000, or, as we might almost say, within a hundred millions.

The influence of several European nations began during this period to be felt on the outskirts of the dominion. The Roman Catholic clergy obtained a locus standi in the midst of the empire. Had it not been for their dissensions they might have converted masses of Chinese from Buddhism and Lao-ism to Christianity. As it was, they shed some lustre on the public service of China, they supplied many corrections to Chinese science and geography, and many noble additions to Chinese historical literature, emulating even the wondrous industry of the natives. Christian converts were made in numbers not

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enough to constitute a political power, but enough to arouse a spirit of jealous exclusiveness among the Chinese. This spirit, though existing in the earlier ages, was not very active, and its manifestation at this time, the eighteenth century, is a proof that the Chinese were beginning to lose self-confidence in respect to the inroad of foreign thought and intellect. Although the religion of China is essentially tolerant as compared with other Oriental religions, yet the annals of this time began to be marked with instances of fanaticism, even of persecution sometimes ending in Christian martyrdom.

On the whole, the internal order, the growing prosperity, the general contentment, the increase of population, the attachment of the people to their country, proved that the Manchu administration during the eighteenth century was, if not enlightened, at least humane, parental and effective.

But besides consolidating internal order, it essayed an external achievement of which the importance at the time was great, and of which the final consequences cannot even yet be foreseen. For it restored to the Chinese empire the dominion over the central plateau of Asia already described on the map. We may remember that the suzerainty over this wonderful region had been claimed and fitfully exercised by the ancient emperors of China. But before the Mongol era (A.D. 1200) this suzerainty had ceased, and since that era, the Central Plateau had been politically separate from the Chinese kingdom. The re-assertion of this suzerainty, then, in the seventeenth century, and the re-vindication of it during the eighteenth, taken together with its successful retention during the nineteenth, invest the circumstance with cardinal importance in the politics of Asia. The military operations by which this success was won, the marches in the desert, the endurance of extremes of heat and cold, the commissariat supplies in foodless and shelterless regions, the transport arrangements in rugged and precipitous lines of communication, deserve the professional study of soldiers and politicians, as

CHAP. III.

MANCHU DEGENERACY.

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showing what China has done in recent times, and what possibly she may yet do. We may also admire the area on which the comprehensive capacity and genius were displayed. For it extended from the Pamir steppe and the source of the Oxus on the west to the Chinese uplands on the east, from the Altai range and the Siberian confines on the north to the heart of the Himalayas on the south. Indian hill states, now under the political control of England, then sent annual presents to China in acknowledgment of fealty. I have heard the Nepalese warrior Jang Behadur feelingly recount the blows inflicted on Nepal by Chinese armies that had crossed the snowy ranges.

Lastly, one characteristic trait may be mentioned in reference to the mountain dominions. The Manchu sovereigns in the eighteenth century believed that in order to maintain their ruling capacity in the softer climate of China, they must recruit their nervous force by sojourning for a while amidst the mountains every year. every year. It was for this purpose that the royal hunts were a part of Manchu-Chinese statecraft. It is noteworthy that early in the nineteenth century, the successor of the Manchu monarch-statesmen resolved to abandon the royal and national institution of annual exercises amidst the mountains. He thereon issued a proclamation to that effect, and those who read between the lines of that document can perceive the first traces of Manchu degeneracy.

CHAPTER IV.

LAKE REGION ON THE FRONTIER OF EASTERN TIBET.

[Speech delivered before the Royal Geographical Society, in London, February, 1882.]

Extraordinary picturesqueness of the Eastern Himalayas - Road from Bengal to the border of East Tibet- Line dividing the empires of England and China Mountain passes in that quarter-Series of lakes situated there Beauty of their aspect-Fine scenery around them- Altitude too high for vegetation Temperature and climate - Forests in lesser altitudes Snowy mountains within Tibet - Views of remarkable splendour or interest― Geological features.

I AM about to speak before you upon the subject of "The Lake region on the frontier of Eastern Tibet." My speech will comprise mainly an exposition of the map and of the pictorial illustrations which have been made for this purpose. The map has been prepared specially by our draughtsman, Mr. Turner. The illustrations have been prepared on a large scale by my brother, Lieutenant George Temple, R.N., from water-colour sketches made by myself.

In the first place, I must ask you to observe that the district. of Sikkim overlooks from the north the rich province of Bengal, and is situated in the eastern part of the Himalayas; and that a railway runs up from the direction of Calcutta to the foot of the Himalayas. From the base of the mountain, there is a well-engineered road (now superseded by a tramway) up to the hill station of Darjiling, which is the capital of British Sikkim. You will perceive that British Sikkim is marked within the line, which in our maps always indicates British dominion. It originally belonged to the

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