ÆäÀÌÁö À̹ÌÁö
PDF
ePub

been accomplished. The constant rise in the specific gravity of the juices affords a convenient means for the estimation of the sugar present, and for learning the period when the crop may be most profitably worked for sugar.

The cultivation of sorghum is practically the same as that of maize, it being planted in drills or hills according to the custom of the country or the nature of the ground. On good land the drills may be three feet apart, and the stalks at a distance of three or four inches apart in the drill. The weight of stripped stalks which may be obtained on good land varies from twelve to thirty tons, according to the variety of sorghum grown. The height of the plant also varies from nine to fifteen feet, according to variety.

SOSTENUTO (Ital.), a term used in musical notation, to indicate a sustained mode of execution. continuous in respect of tone.

SOTTEVILLE-LES-ROUEN, a small town of France, in the department of Seine-Inférieure, four miles south of Rouen by railway. Population in 1872, 9,548.

SOUKCHOUM KALE, a seaport town of Asiatic Russia, in the government of Transcaucasia, on the east coast of the Black Sea. In 1831, a commercial port was established here, which, however, has not fulfilled the expectations that were formed regarding it, having surrendered its pre-eminence to Potti, a town about seventy miles to the southeast. Population 1,612.

SOULÉ, PIERRE, United States Senator, was born at Castillion, France, in 1802; died at New Orleans, La., in 1870. In 1825 he began his career as a lawyer and politician in New Orleans, and became soon prominent there. He was sent to the United States Senate in 1847, and in 1853 he went to Spain as United States minister. He returned in 1855. In 1861 he was sent to Europe as a Confederate agent. In 1862 he was captured in New Orleans by the Union troops, and imprisoned in Fort Lafayette, New York. He was soon released, however, on condition of leaving the country. He went to France, but returned to America in 1869.

SOULS, CURE OF, (Lat. cura animarum, care of souls), the technical phrase by which the canon law describes the charge which is given to a pastor, no matter of what degree of dignity, over the spiritual concerns of a flock; and the words especially imply the right of administering the sacra

ments.

SOUND, a word signifying generally a strait or narrow sea-way; but applied specially to the strait which leads from the Cattegat into the Baltic Sea, between Sweden on the east, and the Danish island of Seeland on the west.

SOUND DUTIES, certain dues formerly payable to the Danish government by all vessels passing the sound or strait separating Sweden from Seeland. These duties originated in an agreement between the King of Denmark and the Hanse Towns in 1348, by which the former undertook to maintain the light-houses in the Cattegat, and the latter to pay duty for them.

SOUR-SOP (Anona muricata), a West Indian fruit tree, of the same genus as the custard apple. The tree does not attain a large size, but is much branched and very ornamental. The fruit is very large, often weighing two or three pounds; its pulp is white succulent, sweet, with an agreeable acidity. The sour-sop is a pleasant and refreshing fruit, and is very much used in the West Indies, being produced in great abundance.

SOUTANE, the name usually given in France and Italy to the outer garment worn in civil life (commonly with a flowing over-dress or robe) by

Roman Catholic ecclesiastics, when the strict law of clerical costume is in force; and also ordered to be worn under the priestly robes used in the public ministerial offices of the clergyman.

SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. For general article on this Republic (known as the Transvaal) see Britannica, Vol. XXIII, pp. 516-19. The constitution, adopted in 1849 was last revised in July, 1887. The legislative power of the state 18 vested in a Volksraad of 39 members, elected for four years, one-half retiring every two years. the franchise qualification for people not born in the Republic is residence for five years, the oath of allegiance, and payment of $100. The qualification for a member of the Volksraad is: age 30 years, born in the Republic, or 15 years burgher entitled to vote, member of a Protestant church, residence in the Republic, and possession of a landed property in the state. The executive is vested in a president, elected for five years by all enfranchised burghers, assisted by a council consisting of three official members (the state secretary, the commandant general, and the secretary), and three non-official members elected by the volksraad.

The area of the Republic is estimated at 121,854 square miles, divided into 17 districts, and its white population in 1889 at 110,000, of whom 62,000 are Dutch; the native population is estimated at 500,000. These figures, however, can be regarded as only approximate until a regular census is taken in 1890. The boundaries of the state are precisely defined in the convention of February 27, 1884since altered by a supplementary convention, by which the former New (Zulu)_Republic was annexed to the South African Republic as a new district, named Vrijheid. The seat of government is Pretoria, and the chief town Potchefstroom. The largest town is Johannesburg, the mining centre of Witwatersrand goldfields, with a population of 30,000 and a floating population of 100,000. The bulk of the population are engaged in agriculture. There were in 1891 about 20,000 gold-diggers and 10,000 engaged in trade.

INSTRUCTION AND RELIGION.-In 1890 there were 10 English schools in Pretoria, and one or more in each of the other towns. In 1889 the sum of $124.935 was spent for the education of 5,475 pupils. There are 28 village schools, and 197 ward schools, besides a gymnasium at Pretoria with 173 pupils. The sum of $100,000 was voted for a University in 1890.

The Dutch Reformed Church is the dominant religious body, claiming 43,821 (1888) of the population; other Dutch churches, 18,100: English church, 6,581; Wesleyans, 3,866; Catholic, 3,000; other Christian churches, 1,500; Jews, 2,000.

PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY.-In 1890 there were about 20,000 farms, 16,000 of which belonged to private individuals.

The country is possessed of considerable mineral wealth, and gold digging is carried on to a great extent in the various gold fields, principally Barberton and Witwatersrand, the total number of proclaimed gold fields being at the present (August, 1890) twenty-one, covering an area of more than 1,500,000 acres. The output of the Witwatersrand mines alone amounted to 230,911 oz. in 1888, and to 381,032 oz. in 1889, representing a value of 808,1881. and 1,333,6121. respectively. The output of the Kaap gold fields for 1889 was 34,148 oz., to the value of 119,5181; from Klerksdop and Zautpansberg and other gold fields, 13,852 oz. to the value of 48,5821. Total output for 1889 from all the fields, 421,932 oz., to the value of 1,473,6121. The grand output for the first six months

of 1890 amounted to 223,864 oz., to the value of 682,7851. The gold export through the custom houses in Natal and Cape Colony amounted to 918,7047. in 1888, to 1,444,1127. in 1889, and for the first six months of 1890 to 818,7361. In the South African Republic and Swaziland in 1889, there were 371 companies working for gold, with a nominal capital of over 21,473,000l. and 2,151 stamps. cellent coal is found in the east of the country, which is being worked to a small extent, while iron is also known to abound; lead, silver and tin have also been found.

Ex

COMMERCE AND INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.-The principal exports are wool, cattle, hides, grain, ostrich feathers, ivory, gold, and other minerals. The imports on which dues were charged for 1886 amounted to 721,3531.; in 1887 to 2,204,3271.; in 1888 to 3,748,8301. The import duties amount to about 8 per cent of the whole.

The southern boundary of the South African Republic is about 220 miles from Durban, 536 from Port Elizabeth, and 698 from Cape Town; while its eastern boundary is not forty miles from Delagoa Bay. A railway from Lourenço Marques, on Delagoa Bay, was opened in December, 1887, and now (1889) it extends to the boundary. It is proposed to continue the line to Pretoria, with branch lines to important centres. The South African Republic is joined to Natal by telegraph, and telegraph lines extend nearly 1,250 miles; the country is also connected with the Orange Free State and Cape Colony by telegraph. There are twenty-eight offices.

Weights and measures are the same as in Cape Colony, and the currency is English money only.

The Republic has no standing army except a small force of drilled artillery, but all able-bodied men are liable to military service when needed.

The finances of the country indicate remarkable prosperity.

SOUTHAMPTON, a village in New York, on the southern shore of Long Island, ninety miles east of Brooklyn. Population of township in 1890, 8,189. SOUTHAMPTON WATER, a fine inlet stretching northwest from the point at which the Solent and Spithead unite. It is eleven miles long, and about two miles wide. The Isle of Wight, which intervenes between the Southampton Water and the Channel, forms a magnificent natural breakwater. The chief rivers which fall into this inlet are the Test or Anton, the Itchen, and the Hamble.

SOUTHARD, HENRY, patriot, was born on Long Island, N. Y., in 1749; died at Baskingridge, N. J., in 1842. He was an active patriot during the Revolution; served for nine years in the State legislature; and was a representative in Congress in 1801-11, and again in 1815-21. He was a man of superior talents and possessed a remarkable memory. Until he had passed the age of 90 years he never wore glasses nor used a walking stick. His son, SAMUEL LEWIS SOUTHARD, United States Senator, was born at Baskingridge, N. J., in 1787, died at Fredericksburg, Va., in 1842. In 1815 he became associate-judge of the supreme court of New Jersey, and from 1821 till 1823 he was United States Senator. From 1823 till 1829 he was secretary of the navy. In 1832-33 he was governor of New Jersey, and from 1833 till 1842 he again served in the United States Senate, being president of the senate during the last-named year.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA. For general articles see Britannica, Vol. XXII, pp. 283-286. On Dec. 31, 1889, the area was 903,690 square miles; and the population 324,484,-167,441 males, and 157,043 females. This estimate does not include the aboriginal population.

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.-The constitution which bears date Oct. 27, 1856, vests the legislative power in a parliament elected by the people. The parliament consists of a legislative council and a house of assembly. The former (according to a law which came into force in 1881) is composed of twenty-four members. Every three years the eight members whose names are first on the roll retire, and their places are supplied by two new members elected from each of the four districts into which the colony is divided for this purpose. The executive has no power to dissolve this body. It is elected by the whole colony voting as one district. The qualifications of an elector to the legislative council are that he must be twenty-one years of age, a natural-born or naturalized subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the electoral roll six months, besides having a freehold of 501. value, or a leasehold of 201. annual value, or occupying a dwelling-house of 251. annual value. The qualification for a member of council is merely that he must be thirty years of age, a natural-born or naturalized subject, and a resident in the province for three years. The president of the council is elected by the members.

The house of assembly consists of fifty-two members, elected for three years. The qualifications for an elector are that of having been on the electoral roll for six months, and of having arrived at twenty-one years of age; and the qualifications for a member are the same. There were 62,434 registered electors in 1888. Judges and ministers of religion are ineligible for election as members. The election of members of both houses takes place by ballot.

The executive is vested in a governor appointed by the crown and an executive council, consisting of the responsible ministers and specially appointed members.

Present Governor of South Australia.-Right Hon. the Earl of Kintore, was appointed December, 1888. The governor, who is at the same time commander-in-chief of the forces, marine and military, has a salary of £5,000 per annum. The ministry is divided into six departments, each of which receives a salary of £1,000.

INSTRUCTION AND RELIGION.-Public instruction is under charge of the educational department. Teachers are paid partly by fees and partly by government grants, public lands being set apart for educational purposes. Education is compulsory up to a certain standard, government grants, exhibitions and scholarships, carrying the holders to higher schools and universities. At the close of 1881, 64,541 persons were unable to read and write. In 1888 there were 250 public schools and 286 provisional schools; the number of children under instruction during 1888 being 45,236. There is a training college for teachers. The University of Adelaide was founded in 1872. The university is authorized to grant degrees in arts, law, medicines and sciences.. Its endowment amounts to 50,000l. and 50,000 acres of land. There are several denominational colleges. There were 302 private schools, with 13,467 pupils, in 1889.

The aggregate number of churches and chapels in the colony in 1888 was 1,014. At the census of 1881 the number belonging to the leading denominations were as follows:-Church of England, 76,000; Roman Catholic, 42,928; Wesleyans, 42,103; Lutherans, 19,617; Presbyterians, 17,917; Baptists, 14,000; Methodists, 10,790; Bible Christians, 10,500; Congregationalist, 9,908; Jews, 702. No aid from the State is given for religious purposes.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURES.-The following table shows the summaries for five years:

[blocks in formation]

The revenue for 1890-91 is estimated at £2,621,897, and expenditure, £2,553,302.

The greater part of the revenue of the colony is derived from customs, duties, inland revenue, posts and telegraphs, railways and territorial receipts. while the main portion os the expenditure is on account of public works, railways, and interest on public debt. The total revenue averages £7, 163 per head, of which customs and other sources of taxation contribute £2, 7s. About one-third of the expenditure is for administrative charges, comprising salaries of judges, etc., civil establishments, defenses, police, gaols and prisons.

The public debt of the colony, dating from 1852, amounted, on December 31, 1889, to £20,435,500. Three-fourths of the public debt has been spent on railways, waterworks and telegraphs, the net earnings of which exceed the interest payable. The railways show a profit of five per cent. per annum. The real property of the colony in 1886 was valued at £50,000,000, and personal property at £20,000,000.

PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY.-At the end of 1889, out of a total of 578,361,600 acres, 9,572,868 were alienated, the total land enclosed amounted to 25,385,817 acres of which 2,864,877 acres were under cultivation in 1889-90. Of this 1,842,961 acres were under wheat, 329,643 under hay, 7,437 under orchards, 7,352 vineyards, and 591,432 fallow. The gross produce of wheat in 1879-80 was 14,260,964 bushels, in 1884-85, 14,621,755 bushels, and in 1889–90, 14,577,358 bushels. In 1884, 473,535 gallons of wine were produced, of which 50,080 gallons were exported; in 1889-90, 1,052,086 gallons were made, and 180,135 gallons exported. The live stock in 1889 numbered -horses, 170,515; cattle, 324,412; sheep, 6,386,617. In 1889, out of the total area 166,117 square miles were held under pastoral leases, and the number of leases was 1,195.

The mineral wealth as yet discovered consists chiefly in copper and silver. The value of the copper ore produced in 1889 was 82,355; and of copper, 212,933; and the total value of all minerals procuced 349,430; in 1887 it was 319,954; 1886, 275,280; 1885, 344,451; 1884, 491,9501.

In 1889 there were 668 factories in the colony, employing 11,429 people. There were 39 iron and brass furnaces, employing 1,742 people, and 33 manufacturers of agricultural implements to 401 people.

240,000 tons of breadstuffs were exported in 1889. The total value of imports in that year, was £6,804, 451; exports, £7,259,365.

SHIPPING AND INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS.-In 1889, 1,036 vessels of 978,532 tons entered and 1,046 vessels of 980,810 tons cleared the ports of the colony. The total shipping belonging to the colony is 301 vessels of 34,645 tons.

The colony possesses 4,500 miles of made roads. It had 1,756 miles of railway open for traffic in December, 1889, and 54 miles of lines in course of construction. The railways pay 5 per cent. profit to the government.

There were 5,502 miles of telegraph and telephone in operation at the end of 1889, with 11,677 miles of wire. Inclusive of the total is an overland

line running from Adelaide to Port Darwin, a distance of 2,000 miles, in connection with the British Australian cable. The receipts exceed the cost of the department after paying interest on moneys borrowed for construction. Attached to the telegraph department, telephone exchanges have been established.

In 1889 there were 593 post offices in the colony; and during 1889 there passed through them 16,388,607 letters, 913,122 packets, and 9,085,714 newspapers.

SOUTHGATE, HORATIO, missionary bishop, was born at Portland, Me., in 1812. After being ordained P. E. priest in New York, in 1839, he was sent to Constantinople as missionary and delegate to the Oriental churches, where he remained four years. In 1844 he was consecrated, in Philadelphia, as missionary bishop for Turkey. In 1849 he came home and offered his resignation of the office, which the House of Bishops accepted in October, 1850. He was rector of the Advent, a church in Boston, 1852-8, and of Zion, a church in New York City, 1859-72. Since 1858 he has lived at Ravenswood, L. I., and has written several books.

SOUTH BEND, a city of Indiana. Population in 1890, 21,819. See Britannica, Vol. XXII, p. 218.

SOUTH BETHLEHEM, a borough of Pennsylvania, seat of Lehigh University and of Bishopthorpe School for young ladies, beautifully situated on the Lehigh River, opposite Bethlehem. It contains manufactories of steel, zinc, boilers, and shovels. Population in 1890, 10,302.

SOUTHBRIDGE, a town of Massachusetts, on the Quinebaug River, thirty miles east of Springfield. It produces a variety of manufactures. Population in 1890, 7.744.

SOUTH CAROLINA, STATE OF. For general article on SOUTH CAROLINA, see Britannica, Vol. XXII, pp. 286-289. The census of 1890 reports the area and population as follows: Area, 30,570; population, 1,151,149, an increase during the decade of 155,572. Capital, Columbia, with a population of 15,353.

POPULATIONS OF CITIES AND TOWNS.-Of the cities and towns in the State having each a population of 2,000 or more the largest percentages of increase are found in Piedmont, Rock Hill, Laurens, Darlington, and Camden towns, and Sumter City. The largest numerical increases during the decade are found in Columbia and Charleston cities, Columbia having increased 5,317, or 52.98 per cent. while Charleston has increased 4,971, or 9.95 per cent.

The population of twenty cities and towns, in the order of their rank, is as follows:

[blocks in formation]
[blocks in formation]

The governor's salary is $3,500. CONDENSED HISTORIC OUTLINE.-The earliest efforts at settlement of South Carolina were in May, 1562, by John Ribault, the leader of the party of French Huguenots. With two ships he sailed up the river, naming it St. John, in Florida, and à little later, sailed northward entering an inlet and harbor which he called Port Royal. On an island in that harbor he built a fort which he called Carolina after Charles IX. of France. There he left '60 colonists and returned to France for supplies. In his absence the colonists became dissatisfied,

killed the commandant, and sailed for France. In 1670 a party of English colonists settled at Port Royal, but they next removed to the west bank of the Ashley River, and founded the present city of Charleston. There were three ship-loads of colonists under the leadership of William Sayle. In 1674 Joseph West was appointed governor, and held the office for several years. The colonists were chiefly English cavaliers, or children of cavaliers, from the aristocratic classes. Until 1820 North and South Carolina were nominally governed under a constitution prepared by John Locke, who with the Earl of Shaftsbury had received the grant of the territory. The introduction of the cultivation of rice into the territory dates from about 1700.

A French fleet attacked Charleston in 1706, but was repulsed with heavy loss. The Indians were very troublesome until 1715, when they were expelled. The proprietary rights of the colony were purchased by the English parliament in 1720, and the colony became a direct dependency upon the crown; and slave property in the colony was carefully protected by England for the ensuing fifty years. South Carolina sent delegates to the Continental Congress in 1774-5, and her governor fled in September, 1775. During the Revolutionary war several severe engagements took place in South Carolina territory. the last one (between Gen. Greene and Col. Stewart) in September, 1781.

South Carolina ratified the Constitution of the United States May 23, 1788. Her first permanent constitution was adopted June 3, 1790. In 1832 an effort was made by influential citizens to nullify certain acts of Congress imposing tariff duties. On March 11, 1833, the State legislature passed a nullification ordinance. From 1820 the colored population exceeded that of the white in the State. On Oct. 25, 1860, the legislature unanimously resolved to secede from the Union provided Mr. Lincoln should be elected President of the United States. An election for members of a convention of the State was held Nov. 22. The convention met Dec. 17, and unanimously passed the ordinance of secession, Dec. 20, 1860. The State opened the great civil war by bombarding Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. After the close of the war a State convention, held in Sept., 1865, declared the secession ordinance "null and void," repudiated the Confederate State debt, and framed a State constitution. The State was re-admitted to the Union in June, 1868.

new

South Carolina adopted the first ten amendments to the constitution of the United States, Jan. 19, 1790; the thirteenth amendment (prohibiting slavery), Nov. 13, 1865; the fourteenth amendment, July 9, 1868: and the fifteenth amendment, March 16, 1869.

PROGRESS OF POPULATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA BY DECADES.-In 1790, 249,073; 1800, 345,591; 1810, 415,115; 1820, 502,741; 1830, 581,185; 1840, 594,398; 1850, 668,507; 1860, 703,708; 1870, 705,606; 1880, 995,577; 1890, 1,151,149.

For numerous additional items of interest relating to South Carolina, see the article "UNITED STATES," in these Revisions and Additions.

SOUTH CHESTER, a town of Pennsylvania, a suburb of Chester. It contains many manufactories for woolen and cotton goods. Fopulation in 1890, 7,067.

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP are among the breeds of sheep regarded with favor in America because of the richness and choice flavor of their mutton. They are comely sheep, with small, neat heads, thin, sensitive ears, brownish-gray faces, broad, level backs, plump bodies, deep quarters, and light, clean legs of the same color as the face. Full

grown ewes and wethers, in good condition, average in weight from 150 to 200 pounds. The fleece is dry and the staple of middling length, somewhat harsh, but strong and durable. The fleeces average from five to eight pounds of washed wool. It is the quality of their flesh which gives the Southdowns their preeminence. The mutton is delicate and juicy, with the lean nicely marbled with fat, and unsurpassed in flavor. The ewes are proline, good mothers and good nurses. The breed is prepotent impressing its characteristics on all others with which it is crossed. The Southdowns must be kept in small flocks, and well cared for. They are not adapted to "rustling" in large flocks, like Merinos, but are well-fitted for the farmer who works a moderate area and will care for them. The American Southdown Association numbers in its membership not only leading breeders, but also gentlemen who are eminent in public life, and

and public lands, and attorney-general, all of whom are elected for terms of two years.

The legislative department consists of a senate of not less than twenty-five or more than forty-five members, and a house of representatives of not less than seventy-five or more than one hundred and twenty-five members. The term of office of both senators and representatives is two years. The legislature meets biennially on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of January, odd years, each session being limited to sixty days.

In respect of judiciary and other departments the constitution is similar to the constitution of other states.

EDUCATION. A system of public education is established by law, and supported by taxation and by the proceeds of special grants of land made by the general government. In the leading cities and towns, excellent graded and high-schools are main

[graphic][merged small]

it is said to be in a very flourishing condition, financially and otherwise. The latest "Record" gave the list of officers as follows: President, J. H. Potts, Jacksonville, Ill.; secretary, S. E. Prather, Springfield, Ill.; treasurer, DeWitt Smith, Bates, Ill.; directors, C. M. Clay, Kentucky; Hon. Levi P. Morton, New York; John Jackson, Canada.

SOUTH DAKOTA, STATE OF. For general article on DAKOTA (including North and South Dakota) and for maps of North and South Dakota, see Britannica, Vol. VI, pp. 772-4. See also NORTH DAKOTA in these Revisions and Additions. The United States Census of 1890 returned the area and population of South Dakota as follows: Area, 77,650 square miles; population, 328,808, an increase during the decade of 230,540. Capital, Pierre, which is also the county seat of Hughes county, and one of the chief stations on the Chicago & Northwestern Railroad on the Missouri River. Population of the principal towns: Sioux Falls, 10,154; Yankton, 3,958; Deadwood, 2,366.

was

CONSTITUTION. - The State constitution adopted in 1889. The executive department of the state comprises a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, commissioner of school

tained. By the act of Congress providing for the admission of the State into the Union, extensive tracts of public lands were set aside for the use of various educational and charitable institutions. Among these were a State university, an agricultural college, a school of mines, a reform school, school for deaf and dumb, normal schools, asylums, etc. These lands are carefully protected by law.

The sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections in every township are also set apart and applied to the support of the public common schools, together with 5 per cent. of the receipts from the sales of all public lands within the State. The State university is located at Vermillion, the State Agricultural College at Brookings, the School of Mines at Rapid City, and normal schools at Madison and Spearfish.

Provision is also made for higher education through several church colleges, academies and seminaries. Yankton College has valuable buildings and a considerable endowment. The Academy of the Sacred Heart is also successfully established at Yankton. The Baptist Church has a Collegiate Institute at Sioux Falls. The Presbyterians have a college at Pierre, in Hughes county; and the Methodist Episcopal Church has a university at

« ÀÌÀü°è¼Ó »