Channels. Thick planks bolted through horizontally on the outside, varying from 10 inches to two feet in breadth; the fore end abreast of the mast, the after end continued aft many feet dependant on the tauntness of the spars. The channels having the dead-eyes on the extreme outer edges give the shrouds a greater spread and, therefore, more security to the masts. Leakage often occurs in the wake of the channels through heavy seas striking underneath, and from the severe strains on all the fastenings, caused by sharp and sudden jerks when a ship rolls heavily.

Clamps. Thick planks forming the uppermost strake of ceiling or planking inside the ship, used to sustain the ends of the beams; they are placed close under each deck and fayed securely to the timbers, to which they are fastened with through bolts and treenails.

Counter. A part of the stern; the lower counter being that arched part immediately above the wing transom. Above the lower counter is the second counter, the upper part of which is the under part of the lights or windows. The counters are parted by their rails, as the lower counter springs from the tuck-rail, and is terminated on the upper part by the lower counter-rail. From the upper part of the latter springs the upper or second counter, its upper part terminating in the upper counter-rail, which is immediately under the lights. Some say the stern is that part immediately above the counter; and some say the counter is that part of a merchant ship's stern, from the wing transom to the first turning or bend in the timber; all above is called the upper stern. [Rats eat through certain angles of the counters, and create leakage; see vermin.]

Dead-wood. Pieces of timber corresponding with and laid upon the keel, particularly at the extremities, forward and aft, where they run up to a considerable height against the stem and stern-post, so as to form an abutment for the heels of the timbers termed cants, which timbers take the place of floors when the angle becomes too acute for their continuance further forward or aft.

False keel. A second keel, composed of elm plank or thickstuff, fastened in a slight manner under the main keel, to prevent it from being rubbed. Its advantages also are, that if the ship should strike the ground the false keel will give way, and thus the main keel will be saved. It is also the means of causing the ship to hold a better wind, or to sail nearer to a wind.

Floor. The bottom of the ship, or all that part on each side the keel extending to the bilge: thus it is said a sharp floor, a flat floor, a long floor, &c.

Floor timbers, those parts of a ship's timbers which are placed immediately across the keel, and which form the bottom of the ship; to these the upper parts of the timbers are united, being a continuation of curved timbers upwards. [Masters should be well informed of the nature and strength of the floor timbers and futtocks, before loading heavy cargoes; see iron.]

Foot waleing. Planking forming part of the ceiling but somewhat thicker than the rest, commonly termed limber strakes. It extends along the floors parallel to the keelson, at about 9 or 10 inches distance, and is through-bolted to secure the heels of the first foothooks.

Forecastle. A place forward under the deck, for the accommodation of the crew; when under a short deck, above the upper deck, it is termed the top-gallant forecastle. [Some ships are damaged by tar, water, &c., wasted from the forecastle; see master.]

Futtocks or Foothooks, separate pieces of timber of which the frame is composed. They are named according to their situation, that nearest the keel being called the first futtock, the next above the second futtock, the heel of which goes on the head of the floor, and the heel of the third on the head of the second, and so on. Another authority says, the middle division of a ship's timbers, or those parts which are situated between the floor and the top timbers; those next the keel are called ground futtocks, and the rest upper futtocks; see iron.

Half-deck. That portion of the sole continued forward from the cabin bulkhead, or aft from the forecastle.

Hogging. A ship is said to hog when the middle part of her keel and bottom are so strained as to curve or arch upwards. This term is, therefore, opposed to sagging, which, applied in a similar manner, means, by a different sort of strain, to curve downward; see broken-backed. The form given to the bodies of ships is such that although the whole vertical pressure of the fluid is equal to the weight of the ship, yet the vertical pressure on every portion of the body is not equal to the superincumbent weights. [If cargo is removed from the middle of a ship and considerable weight is left at each end, she is liable, when water-borne, to be hogged; and, on the other hand, if a ship be deeply laden with heavy cargo amidships, she is liable when afloat to be sagged.] A ship when at rest is not equally water-borne in all parts, as when afloat the extremities are sustained partly by the water and partly by their connection with the central body.

Keel. The main and lowest timber of a ship, extending longitudinally from the stem to the stern-post; it is formed of several pieces which are scarfed together; it is the basis of the whole structure. It is, of course, the first thing laid down upon the blocks for the construction of the ship. [Some descriptions of heavy goods ought not to ride across the keel, or their whole weight will be thrown on it; see iron, mate, and ore.]

Keelson or Kelson. The timber forming the interior or counterpart of the keel, as it is laid upon the middle of the floor timbers, immediately over the keel, and, like it, is composed of several pieces scarfed together. [The scarfs are, if possible, disposed clear of the main and fore masts, also the scarfs of the main keel, and likewise the main hatch, where the scarf may be injured by accident when lowering goods or heavy articles; see mate.]

Knees are crooked pieces of iron or wood, having two branches or arms, and are generally used to connect the beams with the sides or timbers. [In America and the Baltic where crooked timber is scarce, knees are often formed of roots. Iron knees require to be well dunnaged off from perishable goods.]

Lazaretto is a part of the lower deck, parted off for the reception of provisions and stores; it is generally under the cabin in small ships. It is also the name of a hospital ship, or a ship for receiving quarantine goods.

Ledges. Oak or fir scantling used formerly in framing the decks, which are let into the carlings athwartships. The ledges for gratings are similar, but arch or round up agreeably to the head-ledges.

Limber-holes, openings between the floors next the keelson, formed by the heels of the first futtocks being cut off at the limber strake.

Limber-passage. A passage or channel throughout the whole length of the floor, on each side, for giving water a free communication to the pumps. It is formed by the limber strakes, which are on both sides of the keelson, from the

upper side of which the depth in the hold is always taken. This strake is kept at about 7 to 11 inches from the keelson, and forms the passage fore and aft which admits the water with a fair run over the floors to the pump-well. [The water should never be allowed to gain this height if it can possibly be prevented, for by the heeling of the ship it would soon damage cargo, especially in coasting vessels without dunnage.] The upper part of the limber-passage is formed by the limber boards, which are made to keep out all dirt and other obstructions. These boards are composed of short pieces of oak plank, one edge of which is fitted by a rabbit into the limber-strake, and the other edge bevelled with a descent upon the keelson. To prevent their being displaced, each should be marked with a number corresponding with one on the limber-strake. They are occasionally removed to clear the limbers of any filth, sand, chips, or gravel by which they may be clogged, so as to interrupt the passage of the water to the pump-well. [The clearance of the limber-passage is one of the most important duties, especially with such cargoes as grain, guano, rice, sugar, &c.]

Magazine. The apartment used to lodge the powder in; in large ships it is situated forward, in small ships abaft; see ammunition, combustion (spontaneous), and gunpowder.

Orlop Deck in men of war is a deck below the lowest gun deck, and used for stowing cables, &c. In merchant vessels it is the deck below the between decks. This deck should not be strained by heavy cargoes such as timber, which see.]

Palleting. A slight platform made above the bottom of the magazine, to keep the powder from moisture.

Partners. A framework of short timber fitted to the hole in a deck, to receive the heel of a mast or pump, &c.

Pillars and Stanchions are square or turned pieces of wood or iron, fitted vertically under the beams of the decks to support them. [With perishable goods they should be well dunnaged, and with timber cargoes well protected.]

Raft port. A large square hole cut through the buttock between or under the transoms, or forward in the bow between the breast hooks; and through which masts, planks, deals, &c., are taken into store ships or merchant ships carrying such cargoes, which, owing to their great length, could not be got on board in any other way; see mate and timber.

Sagged; see hogged.

Sampson post. A large pillar or stanchion, placed up on end with a rake, so that one end rests against a beam and the other on the deck. It is used as a point of resistance for hooking powerful tackle, or for jack screws when cargo is being screwed into a ship; see wool.

Scuppers. Lead or metal pipes let through the ship's side, to convey the water from the deck; see the article tea.

Scuttles. Square openings cut through the decks, much less than the hatchways, for handing small things up from deck to deck. There are also scuttles cut through the sides of the ship, for the admission of air and light into the cabins between decks, &c.; see the article mate. To scuttle a ship is to make holes in her, so as to let in water.

Shelf pieces or Stringers are pieces of timber running fore and aft the whole length of the ship generally; on them the beams lodge; they are bolted through the sides, and the beams are bolted and dowelled to them.

Timbers. A name given generally to the pieces of timber which compose the frame of a ship, as floor, futtock, and top timbers, as also the stem or head timbers, and the stern timbers.

Topsides. A name given to all that part of a ship's side above the main wales. [They require to be wetted occasionally in hot climates.]

Wall-sided, applied to the side of a ship when the main breadth is continued very low down and very high up, that the sides appear straight and upright like a wall.

Water courses are grooves cut through the under side of the floor-timber, three to six inches from the side of the keel on each side, through which water may run towards the pumps, in the whole length of the floors. This precaution is requisite in merchant ships only, where small quantities of water, by the heeling of the ship, may come through the ceiling and damage the cargo. For cleaning out these holes the lower futtocks of some merchant ships are cut off short of the keel.

Waterways. Long pieces of timber, running fore and aft, on both sides, connecting the beam with the vessel's sides. The scuppers are cut through them to let the water off; see vermin.

Wings. Those parts of the hold and orlop deck nearest to the side, used generally to express any part of a ship or thing nearest to the sides, as the starboard wing, port or larboard wing, starboard wing casks, &c.; see general cargo.

534. HONEY. Specific gravity 1.450. New York ton 20 cwt., gallons 12 lbs.; Havannah barrel 6 gallons. The barque Iona, of Pictou, Nova Scotia, loaded honey at Nuevetas, in Cuba, in May, 1864, for Bremen. She took in between 400 and 550 tons; it was packed in tierces containing 80 to 82 gallons, which were stowed in five tiers, and in barrels for broken stowage, 28, 30, and 36 gallons. Freight payable at per ton of 240 gallons. She had also 37,000 superficial feet of cedar wood-about 47 tons of 50 cubic feet each; and 410 bales of bast, 100 lbs. each, at 1,110 or 1,200 lbs. ton freight. So laden she drew 13 feet 9 inches aft, and 13 feet forward; with 660 tons of Pictou coal, her draft was 14 feet 6 inches aft, and 14 feet forward. She is 302 tons register under decks, poop 65%% tontotal 367%; length 129 feet, breadth 29 feet, depth of hold 12% feet. When unloading it was found that considerable quantities of honey had leaked out of the tierces. Three or four vessels are chartered annually with honey from Cuba, chiefly for the Continent; the season for shipment is the same as for sugar-from January to May.

535. HOOFS, horn shavings, tips, all kinds, Bengal and Madras ton 20 cwt., Bombay 16 cwt.

536. HOOPS. For Admiralty quantities to a ton see the tonnage tables at the commencement of this work,

537.

HOPS will damage by damp, and should not be stowed near any description of goods likely to heat; they will also damage by exposure to the air, and cannot be too closely confined in a ship's hold. In Australia, the ton for freight is 40 cubic feet. A pocket of hops of good quality, well cured and tightly trodden, will weigh about 1 cwt., and a bag about 2 cwt.

538. HORNS should not be stowed too near casks, cases, &c., so that their points may work through, which has occurred. Cow or buffalo, loose, Bengal and Madras ton 20 cwt., Bombay 16 cwt. Deer, loose, Bengal ton 20 cwt., Madras 16 cwt., Bombay 8 cwt. At Bahia, 10 cwt. hoofs and three mil of horns. At Rio Grande and Buenos Ayres, 2 mil of horns. In the article hides there is some information about horns.

539. HORSES conveyed on deck are placed in stalls, say 8 feet long, 3 to 4 broad, and 5 to 6 high, rising at one end to 7 or 8 feet, to give space for the head and neck. The stalls should be 4 inches clear from the deck, to allow the drainage to run off, and permit water from the pump-hose to flow freely underneath. Loose slings are always slung ready to receive the animal when cast down suddenly at sea; and, to prevent surging too far forward, a strong moveable bar, well padded, is fitted across the stall to receive the chest; about the height of the ribs padding (12 in. wide, 3 thick) is fitted all round inside. The floor of the stall should be covered with coir mats, fastened with cross battens, which will assist the footing. Batten each side the floor for cattle, which lie down occasionally. When double stalls are used, the division need only rise 4 feet, so as to promote ventilation which is highly necessary. Horses should be prepared for a sea passage by previous occupation of an open shed; when removed direct from a close stable to a ship's deck, their health is greatly endangered. At sea, constant grooming is necessary to keep them in good condition. The Army Regulations for the conveyance of horses, will be found under the general heading passengers.

540. On board government sailing transports, horses are berthed in the hold, on shingle ballast, in separate stalls, their heads towards each other amidships, where there is as large an avenue as can be obtained for light and ventilation. Two or three spare stalls are kept for convenience, when cleansing those in use. Arrangements are made for sustaining the horses occasionally on bands fixed to the deck above. Great care should be observed to prevent fire, which in December, 1854, totally consumed the barque Europa, with horses for the Crimea, in the Bay of Biscay. The quantity of forage, &c.,