required for government horses, will be found under the heading passengers; see also cattle. Horses and cattle placed in the after part of the hold of a ship suffer most when she is going before the wind, because all the internal effluvia of the hold is driven aft. When she is on a wind the scent runs from the stern to the stem, and rises forward. This operates injuriously on board ship in reference to many other things besides horses and cattle; sometimes the health of the crew is affected by the cargo; see Abbot's Reading, in the article saltpetre.

541. HORSE HAIR, Baltic manufactured, receives double freight of clean hemp per ton of 44 poods gross; manes one-fourth more; tails same freight as clean hemp per ton of 44 poods gross. Some information about hair will be found in the article hides.

She

deep,

With

542. ICE, at Boston, U.S., is sawn into square blocks not less than 12 inches thick. The holds have a space between the planking of the ship and the ice, boxed in and filled usually with sawdust, or some other substance reckoned a non-conductor of heat. Bulkheads and hatches are closed as tightly as possible, to prevent the admission of heated air, which will diminish the cargo and endanger the safety of the ship. The galiot Phoenix, Capt. HENDRICKSTEN, loaded a cargo of ice at Lengner, Norway, in March, 1865. It was in blocks 10, 12, and 18 inches thick, and was brought in carts from a lake two miles distant, and stowed on wood dunnage 12 inches thick. admeasures 74 lasts, is 76 feet long, 18 broad, and 11 Norwegian measure, and was loaded in seven working days. the exception of four feet forward, the hold was full, and she then drew 13 feet aft. On arriving at Plymouth in April, she had to wait for orders, and the weather being warm, some of the ice melted, especially when fog prevailed; the pumps were used occasionally. Out-put 208 tons; the master expected it would have been 225 tons; first cost 17s., freight 14s., to discharge 30 tons per day. The Norwegian barque Achilles, Capt. SCHLYTTER, 386 tons register English, took in a cargo of ice at Krogore, in February, 1865, estimated by her draught, 14 feet fore and aft, to be 412 tons of 20 cwt. She is 92 feet long, breadth under the beams 23 feet, and under the lower beams 22 feet; depth of hold 13 feet, all Norwegian feet. Dunnage in the bottom only, wood four inches deep. The blocks of ice were stowed close together. There was a space of two feet between the deck and the surface of the cargo; the ends of the ship were not quite full. The ice is taken from the Fregensporg lake, half a mile from the wharf, to which it is driven or slided on an open wooden trunkway. Nine days were occupied in loading; six would have

sufficed, but two other ships were loading at the same time. At Krogore the port charges are light; there is very little foreign trade and that chiefly with the Dutch and French. The Achilles discharged at Plymouth in March and April, and made out 406 tons.

543. At Kodiach (near Sitka), one of the Aleutian Indian Islands in the possession of Russia, as a fur station, ice is taken out of an artificial lake less than a quarter of a mile from the place of loading -a small pier, where the ship is moored. Large blocks are drawn along by iron hooks over planks fitted with iron rails running to the ship's hatchways, down which the blocks are lowered on an inclined plank, in the hold. Dunnage consists of cuttings from the dwarf pine tree, which grows freely on the island. Considerable quantities of the branches, thickly covered with their cool foliage, are placed between the blocks and on each layer as the stowage proceeds; a profuse supply is laid over all. A vessel cannot carry herself full of this ice. The British ship Carutyne, of 1,000 tons, chartered by a Russian-American Company at San Francisco, loaded there in 1859; the time occupied in discharging ballast and loading ice was about three weeks. She landed her cargo at a wharf in San Francisco belonging to the Company, on which there is a house built for the reception of the ice.

544. IGNITION. But little danger is likely to arise from the ignition of commonly known inflammable substances, as precautions are generally employed; but safety may be further insured by adopting as a rule, easy of application, that whenever it be necessary to take a light into the hold amongst inflammable bodies, that of course it should be in a lantern and preferably an oil lamp, but that it should always be accompanied with a wet bag or cloth, which by prompt and judicious use, may be made the certain means of instantaneously extinguishing any fire produced by accident to the light.

545. But certain substances well known themselves to be inflammable, are not so well known to give off invisible gases or vapours which are capable of being ignited by contact with flame at a considerable distance from the bodies themselves. Such are some sorts of coal (noticed elsewhere), spirits of wine, brandies, rum, gin, whiskey, others, chloroform, and all distilled alcoholic fluids, as well as pyroxilic spirit or wood naptha, benzole or coal naptha, and camphine, or turpentine. Numerous and most serious accidents have arisen from the ignition of the vapour of spirits when being drawn off for ship's use. In case of breakage of a package containing any of these fluids, the vapour should be gotten rid of by active ventilation, and on no account whatever should it be approached

with any other light than a collier's or other safety lamp. The continuous emanation of vapour from spirits may be prevented by mixture with water. For coal and other bodies liable to the evolution of inflammable vapours, the prevention of danger may be best secured by attention to ventilation, which see; also camphine, dangerous goods, tars, turpentine, &c.

546. INDIGO. Dunnage 9 inches, sides 2. The chests are of teak or other hard Indian wood, lined with thin oil cloth; they should be closely inspected before shipment to see that they are tight, for it happens occasionally that they are not tight enough to prevent the escape of fine dust, which is very liable to discolour and greatly injure rice, sugar, &c. Being light freight (specific gravity 1-009), indigo is often placed on the top, and sometimes has to be moved frequently from one part of the hold to another, before final stowage. Cargo should be previously covered with double or treble mats or loose dry hides, to receive the waste of the chests; and on discharging, the coverings should be taken off carefully to prevent the dust from falling among other goods. Some masters contend that indigo will shake through mats. With three thicknesses of mats under, indigo may be stowed on sugar, saltpetre, casks, &c. Indigo and other valuable freight shipped in the East Indies, should, if possible, be stowed beneath two decks. The chief season for shipment there is during the north-east monsoons. In the five years ending 1855, the average quantity of indigo imported annually was 27,342 chests of East Indian, weighing from 2 to 3 cwt. each; and 3,151 serons Spanish, weighing about 250 lbs. each.

Tonnage, &c. E. I. Co.'s and Manilla ton 50 cubic feet; weight 15 to 16 cwt. It used to be packed in chests nearly uniform, viz.: 18 × 24 × 36 inches, so that when covered with gunny, five measured about 50 feet, and were taken as a ton. 34 maunds weigh 260 lbs., a chest 260 lbs. At Guatemala a seron 250 lbs.

547. INSURANCE. Sea insurance means any insurance or re-insurance upon any vessel, machinery, tackle, furniture of the same, or upon any goods, merchandise, or property of any description whatever on board any vessel, or upon any freight or any other interest which may be lawfully insured in or relating to any vessel. And the word policy means any instrument whereby a contract or agreement for any sea insurance is made or entered into. Policy must be stamped, and cannot be made for more than twelve months.

548. Insurance effected against all or any of the following cases, and occurring without fault or privity of the owner of any ship, shall not be invalid by reason of the nature of the risk.

1. When loss of life or personal injury occurs to any person in such ship.

2. When loss or damage occurs to goods or merchandise in such ship.

3. When loss of life or personal injury is, by reason of the improper navigation of such ship, caused to any person carried in such ship or boat.

4. When loss or damage to goods or merchandise is caused by the improper navigation, as in clause 3.

Passage money is insurable.

549. VALUED POLICIES cover ship or goods valued at a fixed amount, or ship at certain sum, and machinery at another, and equipment at a third, or it may describe the pro rata value of different interests.

550. AN OPEN POLICY leaves the valuation to be determined. It may be agreed to take out insurance for certain goods, or the shipments may not be expressed. Value may afterwards be agreed upon or rated.

551. RUNNING POLICIES attach to the property insured on board a ship or ships for a term; see floating policies.

552. VOYAGE POLICIES are for a voyage to one or several ports, or for out and home. When a ship is insured to any country, unless "ports and places" in such country be named, the policy would terminate on arrival at the first port.

553.

TIME POLICY. This fixes the period of the risk from one day and hour to that of others.

554. SPECIAL OR NAMED POLICY is in which the name of the vessel is entered.

555. FLOATING POLICIES are of two sorts-the one attaching to goods on board ship or ships, and the other insuring any ship or ships of certain lines sailing at or about given dates.

A deviation on the voyage, not caused by the perils of the sea, would vitiate the insurance, if not provided for in the policy.

556. IRON, BAR AND RAILWAY. In consequence of the number of iron-laden ships which have been lost or damaged, there is sometimes a prejudice against cargoes of this description, but where bar or railway iron is proportionate to the ship, and it is judiciously distributed in the hold, well stowed, and firmly secured, a master might confidently proceed with her to any part of the world. Indeed, an experienced master, whose suggestions are adopted, would prefer such iron to many other descriptions of cargo, especially where there is no unnecessary expedition in loading, and the capabilities of the

ship at sea, with her sailing qualities, meet with proper consideration. Masters should avoid overloading, have the quantity specified on the charter-party, and not exceed it. The correct principle of stowing any cargo whatever, should be to distribute the weight fairly over the ship's hold, so that no part of her frame be overloaded; and as regards the ship's trim and power of carrying sail, the centre of gravity of the cargo should not be too low nor too high. Now iron or other metals are generally too low in the hold, making the ship so stiff as to cause her to labour and strain greatly in bad weather. Very long bars should, if possible, be avoided, especially if the vessel is short, and the hatchways small. Capacious hatchways save much time both in loading and unloading. Two days, or three at the outside, are considered sufficient to load a vessel of 140 tons burthen with iron. It is impossible to give specific instructions for stowing iron; the character of the ship, her size, the nature of the voyage, and the season of the year, have all to be considered, also whether it is a complete or partial cargo. In the latter case the condensity or the lightness of the other cargo should have a powerful influence as to whether the iron should be stowed solid or open.

One master says "protect the ceiling from chafe by putting three rows, with their ends shifted, between it and the bars, then lay fagots or wooden slabs with three or four ton of iron on them, and so on."

Another says "bar iron should be stowed diagonally (gratingfashion), bringing it up pyramidically from the ends; this is the mode at Newport and Cardiff. At Porthcawl they stow iron light some way, say one-third up the cargo, then solid, say one-fourth, and the remainder light; this mode has been found very advantageous."

A third says "place say one-fourth of the iron below in open order, well secured; one-half compact, fairly distributed; the remaining one-quarter in open order. The centre of gavity will then not be too low."

An experienced stevedore recommends fagots about eighteen. inches thick, to be laid athwartships, from the keelson to the sides. Iron fore and aft, solid or close together. Next tier angle-fashion, towards the keelson and the wings, pigeon-coted. Third tier crossed the opposite way, to form a diamond in the openings. Then fore and aft solid, and so continue two tiers open and one solid, until three-fifths of the cargo is in-finishing with a solid tier. On this dunnage with a layer of fagots, as before. Then one tier solid to two open, until the cargo is complete.

An experienced master who has loaded iron at Newport for Leghorn says, "it is of the greatest importance that the ground