1004. SENNA LEAVES in bags, and various kinds of leaves, require to be kept quite dry, as they are very liable to ferment and mildew; being easily bruised and broken, they should not be handled roughly. Stow at a distance from all substances containing saline matter, or those likely to generate moisture. Senna must not be

placed too near aloes or drugs of a similar description, or it will become impregnated with the scent. Bengal, Madras, and Bombay ton 50 cubic feet senna; Bombay six cwt. in bags.

1005.

SHARKS' FINS. Madras ton 16 cwt.

1006. SHELLAC; see the articles gumlac and lac. Bengal and Madras ton 50 cubic feet, 16 cwt. in bags. A chest one to three cwt.

1007. SHELLS: Bombay ton 20 cwt. rough sea shells in bags. Nine tons of mother of pearl shells from Western Australia, shipped at Melbourne, 29th July, 1868, in the Jerusalem, Capt. LARGIE, were contained in four casks, sizes 2/11, 2/3, 2/3, and 24 cases of different sizes, none exceeding three feet the largest way. Bags of pearl shells are generally used at Sydney to fill up the cargo near the hatches, as they are not liable to much injury from leakage.

1008. SHIRTING. A bale of English shirting, by the Chinese laws, contains 50 pieces.

1009. SHUMAC requires to be well trodden down. Unlike flour it is very porous and will readily imbibe dampness, even from the ship's side, unless well dunnaged; water will run into shumac until its nature is gone and it becomes quite hard. During the passage of a ship from Dunkirk to Dublin, flour in sacks stowed on shumac became damp and discoloured, and was in consequence much deteriorated. In most parts of the Mediterranean 14 bags go to a ton, either by weight or measurement; when wheat is freighted at 1s. quarter, shumac in bags is rated at 5s. 6d. ton of 20 cwt. It is ordinarily packed in bags 14 cwt. each. At Lisbon a last is 3,600 lbs.

1010. SILK. China raw is packed in small bales, one cwt. each, covered with a kind of matting made of cane; Cashmere shawls in camphor wood lined with tin or zinc, and strewed with pepper and other spices. When in the same hold with teas, it is usual to select the most dry and secure place for stowing, say between the fore and main hatches; this is then called the "silk room," and is formed with boxes of tea on each side. Silk must be kept clear of the corners of hatchways and combings, from masts, stanchions, hold pillars, &c., all of which should be well dunnaged and matted; it must never be placed near the sides, to avoid leakage from bolts or

fastenings of any kind, which will greatly damage it, and particular care must be observed not to stow near packages likely to chafe; neither must raw silk in bales be screwed when stowed, or the gloss will be destroyed, and as moisture is contracted in the hold, the silk will become almost as hard as a brick if screwed. At Singapore it is dunnaged under with rattans, and covered with several layers of mats. At Calcutta and other ports, where procurable, loose dry hides are preferred.

1011. In consequence of the oxidization of the metal (tin, &c.) in which certain corahs or East India silk piece goods were formerly packed, that practice has been abandoned, as wherever the oxidation occurred, a red stain was produced, which on touching the cloth rotted it entirely. They are now packed in cases of teak or hard wood, pitched inside to exclude air, and well lined with wax-cloth and calico; covered outside with gunny and roped. These goods are still dressed with a mixture of rice, sugar, and arsenic, which produces mildew and generates worms if packed in a damp atmosphere; they therefore require special care on a long voyage. Silk is computed to lose 4 cent. in weight between Canton and England. As the shipments in Bengal and Madras generally include large quantities of sugar, saltpetre, and other goods, which produce exhalations, silks shipped there are stowed in the 'tween decks or in spare cabins. It is exported thence all the year round. Japan waste silk (the combings after the silk is drawn) emits an odour highly injurious to teas, &c. In Japan during 1860-61, 9,055 piculs of silk were sold at an average of $372, making £870,548, while in 1867-68 the price had increased to $741, and the total value of 9,845 piculs was £1,680,591. In 1868-69 the price had advanced still further to $800, and the exports 12,400 piculs to £2,252,666. Since 1861 the dollar fell from 5s. 2d. to 4s. 6d. The silkworm suffered much in 1869 from a parasite called "uji" maggot, which is annulated, without feet, and when of full size, sometimes as large as the silkworm chrysalis. It is conjectured that during the spring, a fly deposits on the mulberry leaves its eggs, which being eaten by the silkworm, become uji in its intestines. After the formation of the cocoon, the uji kills the chrysalis on which it has been feeding, pierces the cocoon and renders it useless for anything but floss silk.

Tonnage. About 8 to 84 bales raw silk go to a ton of 50 cubic feet; in some cases 7 bales. Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, 10 cwt. raw silk in bales; Bombay, 50 cubic feet in cases; Bengal and Madras, 50 cubic feet silk piece goods. A box containing 9 bundles raw silk, Chinese, measures 7·112 feet, of which 7.216 boxes go to a ton of 50 cubic feet; for other Chinese measurements for freight, see the table at the commencement. New York ton 8 cwt., Baltimore 900 lbs. China raw.

Measures. Egyptian silks are measured by the pic, 26-8 English inches. The Grecian short pica for silk is 25 inches; the Grecian pound for silk is 1-5th heavier than the ordinary pound, and contains 15 ounces or 166 drachms. A Turkish teffe or taffe 4.32 lbs.; Levant, variable, 800 drachms, each 49.600 grains troy; India pucka-seer 1.866 lbs.

1012. SILVER. Large quantities are imported in plano-convex bars, two feet long, six inches broad and thick; cwt. each. Boxes of Mexican specie are marked MD., dipthong fashion. Bar silver and Bolivian dollars are shipped all the year round at Cobija, which is the nearest port to Potosi. It is brought down from the mountains on mules and asses-the dollars in bags, the bars loose. Cobija is also the sea-port of Chuquisaca and Salta in Bolivia. When shipped in the shape of coin, as dollars, from Mexico, Peru, Chili, and various ports, they are packed in cases, varying in size to suit the quantity contained; see gold. On board the mail steam-ships, it is stowed in the specie room, or in the hold if a large quantity.

1013. SKINS. 7.2727 tons dried skins occupy a space of 850 cubic feet, or one keel. Bengal and Madras ton 50 cubic feet. A timbre of small skins should be 40 or 50, packed between two boards; with some skins the timbre counts 120.

1014. SMALTZ OR SMALT, an oxide of cobalt, melted with silicious earth and potash, and manufactured principally in Germany and Norway. A barrel weighs three cwt.

1015. SMILAX. Forty bales were shipped in June, 1866, at Colombo, in Ceylon, on board the barque Cape City, Capt. JAMES BAWDEN, who describes it as a kind of herb something like sarsaparilla, for the use of which it is substituted. The bales were hydraulic pressed, packed in gunny cloth, and banded with iron hoops 3× 2 × 2 feet, weighing about 200 lbs. each. 50 cubic feet to the ton for freight; they weigh less than they measure. The Cape City registers 422 tons, and is 140 × 27 × 16 feet; partial 'tween decks; she is of iron and has three compartments. Her cargo included 592 tons coffee in casks and bags, and coir yarn; with 90 bales cinnamon and 40 bales smilax. The bales of cinnamon were rolls 4 feet 6 inches long by 12 inches diameter. Shipping season in Ceylon all the year round, but chiefly in February, March, and April.

1016. SNOW-COAL. The ship Erromanga, chartered to load coal within a reasonable time, except "riots, strikes, or any other accidents beyond their control;" a heavy fall of snow caused delay, and on an action for demurrage (22nd February, 1868, Common Pleas), defendant, SCHAWLZ, pleaded the fall of snow, but the court

gave judgment in favour of plaintiff, FENWICK, as the fall of snow in that part of the year was not an unusual occurrence.

1017. SOAP is not liable to injury either from heat or cold ; marine soap is more liable to injury from salt-water than household soap. Soap boxes being square, should, if possible, be all packed together; they are strong enough to carry their contents from one port to another, but will not bear a blow from the end of a cask, neither will they bear such casks or other heavy goods to be rolled over or rested on them. For Australia, the boxes are usually strengthened, and for toilet soap they are sometimes lined with tin. In the spring of 1862 two vessels went from London to the West Indies having general cargoes, including several boxes said to contain soap. During the passage the contents dissolved, leaked on, and damaged and impregnated other goods, causing a claim on the masters which they paid under protest. There is no rule regarding the sizes of chests of soap; in London they contain 4 cwt. and 5 cwt. each; in other manufactories the sizes are confined to 1 cwt., 2 cwt., and 3 cwt. each, the largest chiefly for home consumption, and the lesser for exportation. Seven chests of 3 cwt. sometimes go to a ton.

Sizes. The sizes of boxes are: 1 cwt., 24 × 16 x 12 inches; 2 cwt. 2 feet 9 inches x 16 inches x 16 inches; and 3 cwt., 3 feet 9 inches x1 foot 4 inches x 1 foot 4 inches.

Tonnage. The Admiralty allows 11 half-hogsheads of soap, 24 small casks, or 24 small casks second size and barricoes, to a ton. Bengal, Madras, and Bombay ton 50 cubic feet in cases; Bengal and Madras 20 cwt. in bars, 15 cwt. in bags. In computing the freight of boxes of soap at Baltimore, 200 lbs. net weight are considered equal to a barrel of 5 cubic feet. For the Admiralty weights of barrels of soap, see the tables at the commencement. Ordinarily a firkin of soap is 7 gallons, a barrel 256 lbs.

1018. SODA, crystals of; dunnage 9 inches, sides 24. Soda, soda ash, or alkali, is very absorbent of moisture, and is, therefore, subject to increase of weight, or by access of water to be dissolved and destroyed; having a powerful action on most animal and vegetable substances, it should be stowed clear of them. When loose soda gets into the bilge water, the effluvia has tarnished plates of copper stowed near. Natron, obtainable from the East Indies and from Egypt, is a native form of soda. For injury to nitrate of soda by copper ore, see ores. Mr. B. R. MATTHEWS, agent for LLOYD's at Melbourne, says, 3rd March, 1868-We have had many disputes over damage and stowage, the cargoes being so mixed. The chief articles are soda, and goods that will dissolve from the heat in a ship's hold. A part of the ship should be selected for the stowage of such articles. The packages should be sufficiently safe to hold them; the

present packages are frail and liable to breakage, from the weight of other goods stowed over them, our ships being much larger than of yore.

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1019. The barque Marinus, 512-16 tons register, was chartered 11th April, 1864, by Messrs. SHIELD & Co., to load soda, &c.. at Newcastle for New York, say five keel of coals and remainder goods,""£25 for goods and £20 coal; 16 days to load; to discharge 50 tons per working day." The merchants guaranteed to put the ship as the master wished, but in that case the owners to employ stevedore recommended by SHIELD & Co. The coal was spread fore and aft; anchors and chains amidships on the coal; leads next; then sodas; the bleaching powders being light, were stowed forward. She would have taken 40 tons more. Her draught on departure was, aft 17 feet 4 inches, forward 17 feet; and on arrival 17 feet 4 inches and 16 feet 10 inches. The staves of casks of bleaching powder from Newcastle to New York, are often found on arrival to be so rotten that the contents have to be dug out of the hold by men who require to be paid a high rate of wages; the cost of new casks and cooperage falls heavily on the ship.

Tonnage. 16 tons soda in casks, or 21 in bulk, occupy 850 cubic feet or one keel. When wheat is 1s. quarter freight, soda and other alkalies are 6s. 10d. ton in casks, and 4s. 74d. in bulk. Soda is packed in casks of 2 to 6 cwt.

1020. SODIUM-AMALGAM. The Boston Journal says, the master. of the St. Joseph, recently arrived at this port, having found a suspicious box on board, marked "sodium," flung it overboard, and as soon as the package touched the water an explosion occurred, lifting the sea into an immense column. We infer from a San Francisco journal that it was a new chymical mixture called sodiumamalgam. It is never manufactured in very large quantities, though it has been advertised for sale in San Francisco, one firm claiming to have as much as 200 ounces. The amount does not seem large, but when it is understood that the explosive power of one ounce is equal to that of 25 lbs. of gunpowder, or 21 Ibs. of nitro-glycerine, it can readily be conceived that even 15 ounces or 20 ounces exploded in one place, would create immense havoc. And when one further reflects that even so little a thing as a spoonful of water coming in contact with 200 ounces of sodium would occasion an explosion equal to that which would be caused by the ignition of 5,000 lbs. of powder, or the concussion of 500 lbs. of nitro-glycerine, we can form some conception of its tremendous destructive power.

1021. SORGHO or Sorghum Saccharatum, or Sorgho à sucré, a grain-bearing plant, a native of China, cultivated in the south of