1860. The pilot station for the harbour of Fremantle is situate at Rottnest, an island eight miles to west-north-west of the anchorage, which is specially reserved as a convict station for the natives; the pilotage is so far compulsory, that if the pilot offers, he is bound to be taken, and if a master takes his own vessel in, the pilotage will still be charged before the ship clears outward; coasters by paying an annual fee are exempt, but have to carry an exemption flag when entering the port; there is considerable expense and difficulty in getting fresh water, although there is a jetty built, and a large house with tanks on the south beach from which pipes run to the end of the jetty; the management is entirely faulty, being in the hands of the harbour department, and the settlement being a penal one, red tape is paramount in every direction,-that the want of free and skilled labour keeps the colony back; population is alone wanted.

1361. WHALEBONE, if greased by oil casks, &c., will be considered "damaged by bad stowage." If at all greased when received for shipment, a master should not sign for it as being in "good condition."

1362. Wharfage. Exchequer, 13th May, 1864, sittings in Error, before Baron BRAMWELL, and Justices BLACKBURN, MELLOR, and SHEE. The action was brought by the SOUTHAMPTON DOCK COMPANY against HILL for £17 for wharfage of two packages, one containing a mirror set with numerous diamonds, pearls, and precious stones, of the value of £4,000. The other article contained small property, an ornamented stereoscope, but of the value of £2,600. These articles were sent over by the Sultan of Turkey for exhibition at the International Exhibition. Plaintiffs made an ad valorem charge for wharfage of £17, but defendant refusing to pay, the present action was brought. It was shown that when these packages were landed, the Custom-house officers required them to be opened for their inspection, and they were then kept in the company's premises at their risk for a whole night. The case came on to be tried before Mr. Justice WILLES, when a verdict was taken for plaintiff, subject to the opinion of the Court of Common Pleas upon the construction of the Company's Act, 6th WM. IV., cap. 29, sec. 149, which empowered them to take certain rates for all articles not particularly set forth in the schedule, such sum as should be equal to the rate or sum affixed on goods, &c., " of a similar nature, package, value, and quality to those specified in the schedule." The Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, in delivering judgment, said that no doubt the company ought to be compensated in some measure according to the value of the article and the risk incurred, and he thought this charge a reasonable one, but the question was whether the company had a right to make the charge. One of these articles was such as had never been exported before; it was a looking-glass in a frame set with precious stones, and was not enumerated in the schedule. That being so, the company were empowered by the 149th section to charge the same as they would for articles "likest" to them in nature, package, value, and quality; but there was nothing in the statute to entitle the company to make an ad valorem charge. He could not but think, however, that this charge was a reasonable one, and he had done

all he could to find something in the Act of Parliament to support the company in it, but not having being able to do so, the rule must be made absolute to enter the verdict for the defendant.

Mr. LUSH, Q.C., now argued that the Company had a right to make this charge at common law, as there was nothing in the schedule at all like these articles. By the judgment of the Court below the Company were not entitled to charge anything. The Company had to unship the articles, to have the packages opened, and to keep them at their risk, the articles being of that nature which made them particularly subject to theft. There was nothing at all like them in the schedule, unless a cow could be likened to the hippopotamus. Mr. M. SMITH, Q.C., said they might be taken under the head of curiosities or furniture. The Judges, after retiring, said they need not hear Mr. SMITH, and they then delivered a judgment in almost the words of that of Lord Chief Justice ERLE. Judgment affirmed.

1364. WINGERS, small casks stowed close to the side in the hold where larger casks would cause too great a rising in that part of the tier.

1365. WIRE. Weight of 100 lineal feet B. W. gauge diameter •137, iron 4.965, steel 5.020, brass 5.427, copper 5.710. The weight of a lineal foot of copper bar 1 inch diameter is round, 8.027 lbs., and square 3.854; brass, round 2.863, and square 3.646.

1366. WOOD, UNRATED. Bombay ton 14 cwt.

1367. WOODEN SHIPS. Mr. GRANTHAM, C.E., says, that the tree which is intended for a timber-built ship, is no sooner felled than the oxygen, which, during vegetation, is held in harmless combination, begins its work of decay. The gradual combustion and deterioration of the woody fibre supervenes; carbonic acid is evolved; and the wood, becoming carbonised, loses its flexibility and strength. The progress of this decay is sure, though by care, its effects may be retarded; but, from the numerous instances of its rapid increase, even in well-built vessels, we are led to conclude that no human foresight can prevent its poison from spreading in every direction. Some kinds of timber are much more liable to this defect than others; its progress is increased by neglect and a want of air. But when dry rot has once commenced, a ship's character for seaworthiness is lost, and she can no longer be depended upon; for it is too often found that she is weakened in the most vital points; that those parts on which her safety mainly depends, are decayed; and that some unusual and casual strain is alone required to complete her destruction. [An experienced ship-builder considers that the decay mentioned by Mr. GRANTHAM, is confined principally to aged timber.]

1368. Dry rot in British-built ships may, as a rule, be attributed to the use of unseasoned oak timber* and the neglect of the proper means of ventilation, which can readily be provided for by openings in the ceiling. There are, however, some kinds of timber so predisposed to dry rot that no precaution can save from rapid decay, and a single piece of it in a ship will inoculate adjoining parts, and thus make extensive ravages. But this sort of timber is easily known by its colour and open grain, and should be carefully avoided. Dry rot is best prevented by salting; see the article salting. Whale oil is said to be so good a preservative of timber, that no whale vessel is ever touched with dry rot.

1369. Wood dries more rapidly the longer it has previously remained under water, because the water constantly changes all round the submerged parts, and eventually takes the place of the sap which issues forth and carries with it the fermenting properties with which it is charged. As pure water evaporates with greater rapidity than that which contains foreign matters, the previously submerged timber is sooner seasoned.

1370. Mr. BLACKBURN, in his treatise on Shipbuilding, very properly notices, that in constructing ships care must be taken not to place together those kinds of timber which are known to disagree in their nature, and to destroy each other. The oak of Northern Europe and that of North America, prove extremely pernicious to our native oak; a decayed piece of timber placed in contact will hasten the destruction of a sound piece; when absolutely necessary to place them together, a piece of hair felt between may diminish the injury.

1871. It is stated that Teak which has not been tapped before felling, will not rust iron; the oil in the wood keeps the ship's bolts so clean that where they have been used fifteen years for poop fastenings, they have come out almost as clean as when driven in. Teak timber is occasionally bored into by some perforating insect which seldom takes a course directly across the trunk. The perforations average half an inch in diameter; sometimes they are much larger, and frequently the perforations are larger in the interior, than at the entrance-perhaps through the growth of the insect. The dirt attached to the exterior and the smallness of the exterior holes, often prevent their being discovered in a bulk. Teak planks thus perforated have been used in the construction of ships, and the concealed

* Some builders consider that ships built under close roofs are more liable to dry rot, because when dampness gets in while building, the sun and wind cannot reach the frames to dry them.

leak has involved great loss on the owner, in consequence of the difficulty of discovering its exact position.

1372. The thickness of wood, either as applied to planking or framing, does not increase its durability in a like proportion, but from the difficulty of thoroughly seasoning it when it is of great thickness, or of admitting air to preserve it from damp, is rather detrimental, and thus the small vessel becomes as durable, or even more so, than the large vessel.

1373. The action of iron fastenings is sometimes found to be as injurious to the wood as that of the wood is to the iron; and thus one of the main sources of support to a timber-built ship not only accelerates her decay, but is, in its turn, destroyed with equal rapidity by the wood. An iron bolt of an inch diameter, which secured an iron knee to the oak rib of a well-known steamer, was found after three years, decayed in the wood but sound in the iron knee. It was much above the water-line, and not near the copper; and was probably destroyed by the acid of the oak.

1374. Mr. KUHLMAN asserts that the use of iron nails in building wooden ships is one of the chief causes of their decay. The rotting or decay of wood is a process of slow combustion, and he considers that the iron nails act as carriers for oxygen, and introduce it into the substance of the timber. By contact with water and air, the iron is rapidly converted into a sexquioxide. In this state it yields a portion of its oxygen to the wood, and is reduced to the state of protoxide, which further action of air and moisture converts to the sexquioxide, and so the process goes on. Mr. KUHLMAN fortifies his theory with several experiments, and appeals to the well-known blackened and rotten appearance of ship planks that have been long in contact with iron nails or bolts.

1375. Mr. CREUZE says::—" The metallic fastenings to a timberbuilt vessel act, it must be remembered, not only chemically, but also mechanically, to accelerate her destruction so soon as the close connection of the several parts is at all diminished."

1376. Mr. GRANGE in his Hints to Young Masters, says :-" The masts of merchant ships are generally made of yellow pine in one piece; five or six years is about the average time they stand good. They generally begin to rot about the cheeks, trussel-trees, and heel. And this is generally supposed to be brought about by wet. This, however, is questionable, as the kind. of wood, the cheeks, trusseltrees, or step is made of has much to do with the decay. It has been remarked that American red oak cheeks have ruined a mast in three years. Capt. BROWN, of the barque Sunda, had his lower-masts

made so that the masts formed their own cheeks-the spar being large enough for that purpose. These were justly esteemed by many, and on this principle any mast may be made. All that is required is to find sufficient support for the topmast; and this may be done even without the aid of trussel-trees as now made, viz. :-make an iron cap to fit the mast at the hounds, the mast increasing at the neck and the hoop, with gaining sides; have a notch cut in the aft part of lower-mast four feet above the hounds, and a like notch made in the fore part of heel of top-mast two feet lower down; get a large shackle, to shackle, as I may say, the two masts together-this to have the entire weight of the top-masts. The gaining hoop that goes on the masthead to have the weight of the mainyard.”

1377. WOOL. Large quantities are exported from Australia; in all the colonies there it is sold at per lb., with an allowance in weight for the actual tare, and an additional allowance of 1 lb. P cwt. for draft; freight usually 20 cwt. ton; the principal difference in the character of the colonies is caused by the soil and the climate. In New South Wales fruit is superior, especially grapes, which yield delicious wines; potatoes do not succeed there, while they flourish in Victoria. Bark is too bulky for export unless the European markets range high. Red gum timber, harder than teak, and capable of being highly polished, proves too brittle for conversion into household furniture. Stock or lean cattle bred in New South Wales, are generally paid for in specie, and are fattened in Victoria, which often exchanges them for South Australian grain, considered more plentiful than in all the other colonies united; copper ores are equally abundant. In Victoria distilleries and sugar refineries are successful; the manufacture of paper, cloth, and earthenware is progressing. Tasmanian apples excel those of Hereford or Devon. Large quantities of preserved meats are also exported to Europe.

NEW SOUTH WALES; the bales of wool are 2 to 3 and even 4 cwt.— the average is about 3 cwt. The harvest for wool and grain is in December. Shearing commences in October, and should be over by December; if it is deferred various grass seeds get into the wool, particularly the Anthisteria Australis, or kangaroo grass. Sydney; the season of shipment is from 1st November to March 1st; the principal month is January.

VICTORIA; since 1840 the seasons here have undergone great change, caused chiefly, it is said, by the extinction of the forests to provide fuel for the numerous gold diggers, &c. The temperature has become colder; snow and ice are now seen, and frost is common. The difference of the season for wool and grain as between Victoria and New South Wales is very little, no more than that between Northum