CHAPTER I.

OF PROPOSITIONS.

§ 10. (1) We employ artificial language, 1st. To assert (that is, to say or speak) our opinions, or declare our thoughts, feelings, emotions, &c. 2nd. To question, or interrogate others in order to obtain information. 3rd. To express commands, entreaties, exhortations, &c. (2) Distinct forms of expression are employed in discourse for these three several purposes; and, though, by supplying what is suppressed in the form of the expression (because manifestly implied in the sense), we might readily reduce all questions and commands to the form of assertions, still it is convenient to consider these forms separately.

§ 11. (1) Any combination of words which expresses an assertion, a question, a command, &c., or, more generally, any combination of words which expresses complete sense, is called a PROPOSITION. (2) Those combinations by which an assertion, a question, a command (including entreaty, request, &c.), are expressed, may be called respectively assertive or declarative, interrogative or questioning, and imperative or commanding propositions. These three are usually recognized as distinct forms of propositions (a).

NOTE (a). This classification includes all independent propositions. Dependent propositions (that is, propositions employed to modify or complete other propositions) sometimes express neither assertion, interrogation, nor command. As, for example, If the men come, I will let you know. Here the proposition, if the men come, asserts nothing. It expresses merely the condition on which the assertion, "I will let you know” rests; it is simply here a modification of this latter proposition. But it differs no way in form from an assertive proposition,

§ 10. (1) Enumerate the purposes for which language is employed. (2) Why is a classification of the purposes for which language is employed important in a grammatical point of view? Ans. Because distinct forms of expression are employed for these several purposes.

§ 11. (1) What is a proposition? (2) Enumerate the different kinds of propositions.

and therefore requires no separate place in a classification of propositions having reference to their grammatical forms. In fact, when you withdraw the word "If" (which is no part of the proposition, but serves merely to indicate its connection, and the purpose of this connection with another proposition), the proposition becomes at once assertive. Or, perhaps, rather, if is the verb of an imperative proposition, and "the men come" is the objective to it.

Since interchange of thought is effected through the medium of propositions, and discourse consists almost wholly of propositions of one or other of the kinds above mentioned, it follows (3) that the chief business of the grammarian is the analysis of propositions, and the explanation of the manner in which words are combined to form them.

(4) The assertive or declarative proposition claims our first and chief attention. (5) It is the most simple; it is complete, containing all the parts essential to every form of proposition fully expressed; it recurs most frequently in discourse; and even were interrogative and imperative propositions not reducible (as they seem to us to be) to the assertive form, they differ from it only in the arrangement, or in the suppression of some of their constituent parts. After the assertive form is explained, the few points in which the others differ from it will be easily explained and readily understood.

§ 12. (1) It is manifestly essential to an assertion that some thing should be asserted—that is, said or spoken-of some person, oi some thing, and as an assertive proposition is an assertion clothed in language, the three following parts may be distinguished in every such proposition when fully expressed. (2) First, some means of indicating the person or thing of which we speak, or make the assertion. This is called the SUBJECT of the proposition. (3) Second, a means of expressing what is intended to be said or asserted of the subject. This is called the PREDICATE of the proposition. (4)

(3) What is the chief business of the grammarian?

(4) Which kind of propositions claims our first and chief attention? (5) Enumerate the reasons assigned for considering this form first.

§ 12. (1) How many parts may be distinguished in every completely expressed proposition? (2) What is the subject of a proposition? Ans. That about which the assertion contained in the proposition is made. (3) What is the predicate of a proposition? Ans.

The word predicate means what is said or asserted. [(5) The subject and predicate are called by logicians the two terms of the proposition.] And, third (6), a means of indicating that the predi cate is intended to be asserted of the subject. This is what the logicians call the COPULA—that is to say, what couples, connects, or unites the subject and predicate.

§ 13. [(1) In some languages (the Latin and Greek, for example) all the parts of a proposition, subject, predicate, and copula, are sometimes expressed by a single word; but a word including a combination of significant signs.] (2) In our language, the subject, however simple and unmodified, is usually expressed by at least one separate word in assertive propositions. (3) The copula is never (as we view the matter, see § 46, and note) expressed in the English language, nor in any language, which we know, by a separate word. (4) The copula and predicate (or the leading part of the predicate) are united in the same word. Otherwise, the word which expresses the predicate, or leading part of the predicate, is so modified-assumes such a form, or receives such place in the arrangement of the proposition, as, in accordance with the usages of language, to indicate assertion in assertive propositions, interrogation in interrogative propositions, &c.

NOTE.-There are a few, very few exceptions; and even these occur in forms of expression now rarely employed-such as, for example, methinks, meseems, melisteth. These we intend to consider in their proper place. (See §§ 66: 8; and 79: 18.) On the contrary, in imperative propositions (if the analysis commonly given of them is to be followed) the subject is usually suppressed; for example, Go to the door; Bring me a book, &c. In such propositions as these, no mistake can arise from the suppression of the subject, since the party addressed—the person or persons spoken to-is in our language almost always the subject. The subject of an imperative proposition must be ex

That which is asserted of the subject. (4) What does the word predicate mean? [(5) What are the subjects and predicates of propositions called by logicians?] (6) What is meant by the copula of a proposition? Ans. That which indicates that the predicate is asserted of the subject.

[$ 13. (1) How are the three parts of a proposition sometimes expressed in certain languages?] (2) How is the subject of an assertive proposition usually expressed in our language? (3) Is the copula expressed by a separate word? (4) How then is it indicated f Ans. "The predicate is so modified," &c.-repeating as above.

pressed, when it does not coincide with the party we address. This happens rarely in modern speech.

(5) The predicate and copula united, since they are essential constituents of the proposition, must always be fully expressed in every complete independent proposition by a word of that class which the usage of language has assigned for that purpose. (6) Two words, then, are necessary, in our language, to the full expression of an assertion, or to constitute a complete proposition—one to express the subject, and another to express the united predicate and copula.

[(7) When two or more propositions, having the same common subject, or the same predicate, are united together, the common subject or predicate is very generally suppressed in one or more of them. (8) For example, John reads and writes to John reads, and John writes. Here the subject of the latter proposition is suppressed by the usage of language, and left to be supplied from the preceding one. John and James write to John writes, and James writes. Here the predicate and copula are only once expressed, but in such a form as to indicate that the assertion reaches both subjects. Sometimes, in a proposition connected with a preceding proposition, only the modifying words are repeated, and both subject and predicate with copula, are to be supplied from the other propositions. For example: "They (power and riches) keep off the summer shower not the winter storm" to They keep off the summer shower, they keep not off the winter storm. (9) But this forms no real exception to what we have asserted above. The subject or predicate, in such cases, is simply suppressed, left to be supplied by the understanding of the hearer. It is not indicated or contained under the form of the part of the proposition expressed. They are not, therefore, complete independent propositions. (10) When, in certain languages, a whole proposition is expressed by a single word, the

(5) Are the united predicate and copula always expressed in an independent proposition? (6) How many words are necessary in our language to the full expression of an assertion, or to constitute a complete proposition?

(7) What sometimes happens when two or more propositions having the same subject or the same predicate are united together? (8) Give examples. (9) Show that this is not a real exception to what is said above. (10) When a whole proposition, as in some lan guages, is expressed by a single word, how is the subject indicated?

subject of the proposition is indicated by the form and inflexion of the word which expresses the united predicate and copula.]

§ 14. We are now prepared to commence the analysis of the most simple form of propositions; namely, those which consist of two words, one representing the subject, and the other the united copula and predicate of the proposition. [(1) By the analysis of a proposition we mean the separation of its parts for the purpose of distinct examination.] Let us take, as an example for analysis, the expression, Snow melts. (2) These two words form a proposition, because they express a complete assertion. (3) The word "snow," in this proposition, represents the subject, because it expresses the thing concerning which the assertion is made. (4) The word "melts" includes both the predicate and copula, because it both expresses what is asserted of the subject, and indicates that it is intended to be asserted.

[We may carry our analysis still farther, and separate the predicate from the copula. For, though we have no means in language of expressing the copula alone (5), we can express the predicate separately by a word that gives no indication of assertion. In the proposition "snow melts," the word melting exactly expresses the predicate; for the action expressed by the word melting is manifestly what is asserted of the "snow."

(6) It may be remarked here, that the predicate-word melting, preceded or followed by the subject-word snow, asserts nothingthat is, these two words cannot constitute a proposition. Snow melting and melting snow, though significant phrases-that is, words properly arranged to enter into discourse, and form part of a proposition are neither of them complete propositions, because they do not express an assertion. (7) But, on the other hand, the word melts—at once, in accordance with the usage of our language, indicating assertion and expressing the action of melting-joined to the

§ 14. (1) What is meant by the analysis of a proposition? (2) Why are the words "snow melts" said to form a proposition? (3) In the proposition "snow melts" point out the word which represents the subject, and give the reason for so considering it. (4) Which word represents predicate and copula, and why is it said to represent these?

[(5) Can the predicate of a proposition be exhibited separately? What is the predicato of the proposition "snow melts" disconnected from the copula? (6) Show that this predicate-word or sign joined to a subject will not form a proposition. (7) Repeat what is said above of the word melts.]