nation of the auxiliary shall, or the auxiliary will with the infinitive or verbal noun. (2) For example, I shall write, and I will write. (3) The verbal in this tense is never preceded by the particle to.

(3a) REMARK. The name auxiliary is given to shall, will, do, &c., because they help in forming the compound tenses.

The conjugation or arrangement of the singular and plural persons of the future tense of the verb to write is exhibited below in two columns distinguished as Nos. I. and II. (4) We employ No. I. when we refer chiefly or exclusively "to futurity of event;" (5) and No. II. when the speaker indicates his determination in reference to a future event. (6) If he speaks of himself, his determination of doing or being what is expressed by the predicate of the proposition, if of himself and associates, using the first person plural, his and their joint deterinination. If he speaks of those whom he addresses, or of third parties, his determination that they shall do or be whatever is expressed by the verb.

EXERCISES I., II., &c.-Form propositions in the same manner as prescribed before with the verbs in the future tense, and modified as in the preceding exercises by any word necessary to complete the sense. These exercises may be multiplied at pleasure. Especial attention should be given to the distinction between shall and will. Questions should be asked from time to time in reference to the subjects and predicates of the propositions presented, that what has been taught in reference to propositions may be well fixed in the memory of the pupils.

[(8) Originally, at least, these combinations did not directly express futurity. (9) Shall, in its original use, expressed some kind of

(3a) Repeat the remark on the name auxiliary.

(4) When do we employ the form in column I.? (5) When the form in column II.? (6) Repeat the illustration. (7) Repeat separately the two forms of the future tense.

[(8) Did these combinations originally express futurity directly? (9) What did shall and

necessity arising from duty, obligation, or external compulsion, and will, determination, intention, purpose, choice, volition, &c. (10) I shall write, implied, originally, I am under some necessity to write. (11) From this it would naturally be inferred that I am about to write at some future time. (12) I will write, properly expresses (or, at least, once expressed) in a direct manner that I determine or purpose, or have a will to write. (13) From this, in like manner, it may be inferred that I am about to write. (14) The reference to the future now implied-perhaps now directly suggested-by these forms, must in the beginning have been an inference of the understanding, the result of an act of reasoning, not of the simple apprehension of the direct signification of the terms.*

(15) The original force of shall and will is in a great measure disguised, since, in the vicissitudes of language, they have come to be so generally used to indicate future time. (16) Still they retain so much of there original force, that the one cannot be employed for the other without impropriety-without a violation of the idiomatic usage of the language.† (17) Those who have been brought up in England, or

* What is said above in regard of the manner in which shall and will come to indicate futurity, is worthy of the careful attention of the grammarian and the philologist. It frequently occurs that what was at first an inference —a deduction of reason—comes in the progress of a language to be recognised as the proper and direct sense of particular words and phrases. A reference to this fact may sometimes enable us to explain forms of expression, constructions and idioms, which cannot readily be explained in any other way. For example, "I have been young," comes by inference to equal "Now I am old." In the same way, in Latin, vixit, “he has lived," comes to imply "he is dead;" and "Fuit Ilium," "Troy has been," to imply, Troy is no more. Living, in the one case, is declared to be completed, and being or existing in the other; and from the fact that these states of living and of being are finished, the inference is obvious.

If these words had once come to indicate simple futurity, without retaining any thing of their original distinct significance of necessity in the case of shall, and of purpose or volition in the case of will-they would naturally have come afterwards to be used indifferently; or, perhaps, rather one of them would have fallen into disuse.

will originally express? (10) Give example of shall. (11) What would naturally be inferred from this expression? (12) What does will directly express? (13) What may be naturally inferred from this expression? (14) What is remarked of the reference to the future now implied or suggested by these forms?

(15) What is remarked of the original force of shall and will? (16) What proof is given that they still retain part of their original force? (17) What is said of the natives of Eng

New England, or any colony of pure English descent, seldom employ these two words improperly. (18) On the contrary, it is very difficult even for the educated natives of Scotland and Ireland, and of many parts of the United States, to avoid inaccuracies in the use of these words, because, in the conversation of the uneducated classes-familiar to their ears from early infancy-the proper distinction is not observed. The same difficulty is felt by all foreigners in the use of shall and гоill.*

(19) The rule commonly given for the employment of shall and will, is, that when future time alone is intended to be indicated shall is employed with the first persons singular and plural, and will with the second and third persons singular and plural. (20) On the contrary, will, used with a subject of the first person singular or plural, indicates a promise or a threat, together with a reference to the future; and shall, used with the second and third persons, indicates a threat-some species of compulsion.† (21) In other words, a speaker indicates future action, &c., on the part of himself, or on the part of himself and others, whom he represents, by employing shall-importing that he, or he and his associates, are under constraint to perform the action, &c.; and he indicates future voluntary action, &c., on the part of those whom he addresses, or others, by declaring, not that they are under constraint (this might be discourteous), but that they are willing, disposed to perform the action, &c. Again, when the speaker promises or threatens the future performance of an action, &c., on his

The man understood The Englishman, on language that he was

* The speech attributed to the Scotchman, who had the misfortune to fall into a deep ditch in a dark night, is a good example of the misuse of shall and will. "I will be drowned; nobody shall save me." himself as imploring the assistance of the passers-by. the contrary, who heard his cries, concluded from his resolved to drown himself, and that he deprecated all officious interference with his purpose.

This rule has been expressed in the following doggerel lines:

In the first person simply shall foretells;

In will a threat, or else a promise dwells;

Shall, in the second, and the third, does threat⚫
Will simply then foretells the future feat.

land, New England, &c., in reference to the correct usage of shall and will? (18) What of the natives of Scotland, Ireland, aud many parts of the Unites States?

(19) What is the rule for the employment of shall and will, when future time alone is intended to be indicated? (20) What does will used with a subject of the 1st person indicate? And what shall used with subjects of the 2d and 3d persons? (21) State the rule in another form and more at length.

own part, or on his own part and the part of others, he asserts will or determination, to perform the action, &c., employing the auxiliary will. And when he wishes it to be understood that those whom he addresses, or others, are under constraint (whether exercised by him, or resulting from any other cause), to perform an action, &c., he asserts this constraint by using shall, which imports necessity from obligation or compulsion.*

(22) It may be useful to subjoin a few examples for the purpose of illustration. I SHALL go to the country to-morrow; I WILL go to the country to-morrow. The first of these forms is properly used when circumstances render it necessary that I should go to the country, and I merely indicate that I am about to go; the second, when I voluntarily determine to go, or promise to go. (23) I SHALL never see him again; I WILL never see him again. The first is appropriately employed, when I despair of seeing a friend again; the latter, when I determine never to see a person again, because I am displeased with his conduct. We subjoin a number of examples from good authors, selected from those given by Mr. D'Orsey. The learner may be profitably exercised in trying to assign a reason for the use of SHALL or WILL in each of them. (24) "When I am forgotten, as I shall be."Shaks. "I shall win, for I know she will venture there now."Southey. "I shall forget myself.”—Shaks. "Hear me, for I will speak.”—Shaks. "You shall digest the venom of your spleen." "For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn."-Gray. "The stars shall fade away."]

NOTE.—As it is important to all who would speak English correctly, to be able to decide with certainty and readiness, where they should employ the auxiliary shall, and where the auxiliary will, we subjoin some additional

*We have spoken above of future action, &c. What we have said will apply whatever may be the predicate asserted, whether action or being. It will be observed in all this that the true key to the proper use of these two forms of the future tense is to be found by attending carefully to the original signification of the words shall and will. The only case in which nothing of their original force can be traced, is when we use will in speaking of subjects incapable of determination or volition. Then it implies nothing but futurity, as in the example, The river will overflow its banks. This may be considered an insensible extension of the use of will, from being predicated of persons to be predicated of things, if we may not consider it as originating from a sort of personification.

(22) Tell the different purposes for which we employ I shall go. and I will go. (28) Tell the difference between I shall never see him again, and I will never see him again. (24) Why is shall employed in this example? And so of the other examples.]

remarks from D'Orsey. We have made a few alterations to adapt these remarks more perfectly to our purpose and to our opinions.

Place an emphasis on shall second and third, and will first person, and determination is expressed on the part of the speaker. For example, I WILL go, with emphasis on will expresses the determination of the speaker to go. You SHALL go, he SHALL go, they SHALL go, with emphasis on SHALL express positive command, or intention, on the part of the speaker, to force compliance. Mistakes, in the use of shall and will, are more likely to be made in asking questions than in declarative propositions. "A Scotchman says, WILL I do it? WILL we go? that is, AM I WILLING to do it? ARE WE WILLING to go? Such questions are obviously absurd, as no one can answer except the speaker. The forms should be, Shall I do it? shall we go? thus asking permission," or whether it is incumbent on the party represented by the first person in the one case to do it, in the other to go. We can call to mind at present but one case in which the auxiliary will can, with propriety, be employed with the first persons in an interrogative proposition. This is when the interrogative form is employed to express negation in an emphatic or impassioned manner. For example, suppose I am solicited to assist in some undertaking which appears to me dishonorable. The party soliciting inquires, WILL you assist us in this undertaking? WILL I assist in such a base undertaking? No." Here I use will, either taking it up and repeating it from the question addressed to me; or I may intend to propound the question to my own conscience, Am I willing, can I possibly have a will to assist, &c? Except in such extraordinary cases, we presume, will should never be employed with the first persons in an interrogative proposition. "SHALL you go? means, Do you intend to go?" (rather, we say, Is it incumbent on you to go?) "whereas, WILL you go? implies that the person asking is anxious you should go. SHALL they go? has" (may have) “for reply, Yes, if you give them leave. Will they go? may be answered, I cannot tell; ask them. Will sometimes expresses a simple question as to what may happen, thus, Will it rain? WILL the dog come out of his kennel? means, Do you think he will? SHALL the dog come out? means, WILL you let him?" or Do you require that he shall? or think it necessary that he should?

(25) Much of what has been said of shall and will applies with equal force to should and would, and may assist the learner in determining which is proper to be employed in any particular case.]

§ 59. COMPOUND TENSES FORMED WITH THE AUXILIARY HAVE. -(1) We next present the compound tenses formed by means of the auxiliary HAVE. These are:

I. (2) The PERFECT TENSE, formed by combining the indefinite

(25) What is remarked in reference to should and would?]

$59. (1) Which compound tenses are next to be presented? (2) How is the perfect