subject snow, constitutes a proposition, that is, expresses an assertion, or, what is the same thing, a complete thought.]

(8) In the arrangement of an assertive proposition, the subject is generally placed before the assertive word. This may be considered the natural order (9), though it is often inverted by poets to suit their measure, and by orators for rhetorical effect. (10) The contrary arrangement also prevails in some few forms of expression in ordinary use; as, 66 says I," "said he," and the now obsolete form of expression, "quoth he," and perhaps a few other forms of assertion.

§ 15. (1) In the analysis of proposition, the learner should always direct his attention first to the assertive word. (2) This we recommend, first, because this is the most important part of every proposition; and, secondly, because it is the part most easily recognised. This results from the fact, that the assertive word is always employed for one and the same purpose (except it should be a word of double meaning-see § 16, below), whereas the class of words employed to represent the subjects of propositions (without any change of meaning) perform other functions, serve other purposes besides expressing the subjects of propositions. (3) The answer to the question, formed by the assertive word preceded by what, gives the subject. For example, Beauty fades. What fades? Ans., Beauty, the subject.

It is now time to exercise the pupil in pointing out the words which express the subjects, and the words which express the combined predicates and copulas, or what, for the sake of brevity, we may call the assertive words, in the following and similar propositions.

EXERCISE I.-Beauty fades. Virtue flourishes. Time fleets. Day dawns. Corn grows. Rain falls.

Memory decays.

Water freezes.

(8) What is the usual or natural order of arrangement of the subject, and the assertive word (or combined predicate and copula) in an assertive proposition? (9) Mention classes of writers that sometimes invert the usual order, and the purposes for which they take this liberty with the arrangement in common use. (10) Mention some of the inverted expressions in ordinary use.

§ 15. (1) To which part of a proposition should the learner first direct his attention in attempting an analysis? (2) State the reasons assigned for recommending this course. (8) Tell how to form a question to which the answer is the subject of a given proposition. Illustrate by an example.

Men walk. Reptiles creep.

Birds fly.

Gunpowder explodes. Fishes swim. Boys play. Children talk. Laborers work, &c. &c. The pupil may be questioned on these examples according to the following model. Example: "Beauty fades." Do these two words form a proposition? Ans. Yes. Why? Ans. Because they express an assertion. What is the assertive word in this proposition, and why is it so called? Ans. "Fades" is the assertive word, because it expresses the predicate, and indicates assertion. Point out the subject-word of the proposition, and tell why you call it the subject. Ans. "Beauty" expresses the subject, because it is in regard of beauty (about beauty) that the assertion expressed by the word "fades" is made. Can the predicate of this proposition be expressed alone-separate from the copula? Ans. Yes, it may be expressed by the word fading. Fading is exactly what is here asserted of beauty. Can the copula be expressed separately? Ans. No; the copula is never expressed by a separate word, but is always combined with the predicate, or the leading part of the predicate, to form the assertive word.

The teacher can add more examples, if he pleases. But it is better, we think, to encourage the pupil to form examples for himself, in the manner prescribed in the following exercises. A good exercise may also be given by selecting a passage from any book, or taking one of the exercises in the more advanced part of this work, and requiring the learner to point out the subject and assertive word of each proposition.

EXERCISE II.-Form propositions, by uniting such other assertive words as will make sense with the subjects in Exercise I.

Under this, and some of the following exercises, the pupil may be required to construct a given number of propositions for a lesson; and he may continue the exercise so long as he finds he can supply appropriate assertive words to unite with the given subjects.

EXERCISE III.-Form a given number of propositions by uniting other subjects with the assertive words in Exercise I.

EXERCISES IV., V., &c.-Let the pupil now form two-worded propositions from his own resources, without having either subject or assertive word suggested to him.

indicate this class of words by the term which in those languages signifies name. It would perhaps conduce to perspicuity, if we also called this class of words by our own plain English term NAMES. But long usage has given a kind of prescriptive right to the term noun.] (5) Sometimes the Grammarians call them SUBSTANTIVE NOUNS, to distinguish them from another class of nouns, which is not used to express the subjects of propositions. We shall call them simply nouns, and sometimes substantives, employing these terms (perhaps improperly), like most of the Grammarians of the present day, as of equivalent meaning.

§ 18. (1) Those words which are used to express assertion, or to represent the copula and the predicate, in whole or in part, are called by the Grammarians VERBS. (2) VERB is a term derived, like most of our grammatical terms, from the Latin language, and means WORD. This name is intended to indicate that the kind of sign to which it is applied is pre-eminently THE WORD (a).

As verbs are employed always in assertive propositions only for the purpose of expressing the assertive part, we may in our analysis of propositions designate them simply by their name-verbs. But as nouns perform a variety of functions in the construction of propositions (3), whenever a noun is employed as subject, or leading part (nucleus) of the subject of a proposition, we shall call it the SUBJECT NOUN, to distinguish it from nouns employed for other purposes. (4) In writing the analysis of a proposition, it will be convenient to express the word subject by the abbreviation or symbol S.; subject noun by the abbreviation S. N., verb by V., and predicate and copula, when we have occasion to use them in written exercises, by P. and C.

· The pupil should now learn to point out the subject noun and the verb in the assertive propositions contained in any of the exercises given in the subsequent pages, or in his reading book. Let this exercise be continued with pupils beginning the study of grammar, till

NOTE (a). The old grammarians gave the name verb to this class of words, because the force and energy of every assertion-of all discourse-is contained in the assertive word. "Videlicet quod in VERBIS vim sermonis * * ****** esse judicaverunt.”—Quintilian, I: 4: 18.

(5) By what other name are nouns sometimes called?

§ 18. (1) What name is given to the class of words which expresses assertion?

(2) What does the term VERB mean, and what does it indicate in reference to the class of signs to which it has been applied by the ancient grammarians?

they can, without hesitation, indicate the subject noun and the verb in each proposition. When these parts of a proposition can be promptly discovered, the first step (and the most important step of all) in grammar is fairly accomplished-a step essential to all satisfactory progress, and which prepares the way for every step that follows. After having spent months-sometimes, after having spent years-in attempting to learn grammar, young pupils do not succeed in accomplishing so much as this. Yet we hope that every intelligent pupil will be surprised to find this important step so easily made by the method here recommended, and under the guidance of a skilful and persevering instructor.

§ 19. (1) Nouns and verbs are, in all respects, by far the most important classes of words in every language. (2) As we have already seen, they serve to constitute a considerable number of complete propositions, without the assistance of any other kind of words. But this is not all. They enter as the essential parts into every proposition, which we use in discourse. They form, as it were, the framework on which all propositions are built. No proposition can be formed without a subject noun (or what for the time performs the function of a subject noun), and a verb expressed or implied. (3) The first things, therefore, to be sought in the analysis of every proposition are the verb and the subject noun. (4) In fact, all the words employed in constructing even the most complicated propositions, are either 1st, The subject noun, or the verb; or, 2nd, Words designed to modify, limit, explain either the subject noun or the verb-that is, to complete the subject and predicate respectively; or, 3d, Words employed to connect propositions with one another; and this also, most frequently, for the same purpose of completing the subject or the predicate of the proposition, with which the attached proposition is united by these connective words. More briefly, if we except connectives employed to unite independent propositions, all discourse, so far as it consists of propositions, is made up of nouns and verbs, and the words which are employed to

(3) How is a noun distinguished when employed as subject or leading part of the subject of a proposition? (4) By what abbreviations are subject, subject noun, verb, predicate and copula to be represented respectively in written analyses?

$19. (1) What is said of the importance of nouns and verbs compared with other classes of words? (2) Tell what is said to illustrate the importance of nouns and verbs. (3) What are the first things to be sought in the analysis of a proposition? (4) For what purposes

modify nouns and verbs. (5) It will be found presently that nouns not only perform the function of expressing the subjects, or leading part of the subjects of propositions, but are also largely employed for the purpose of modifying or completing the subjects and the predicates of propositions. (6) When, in addition to this, we consider that the verb is the predicate with an assumed assertive form, and that the predicate itself is a noun of a particular kind (see § 27), we may judge how largely nouns figure in the formation of propositions, and (what is nearly the same thing) in constituting discourse.

To present the names and definitions of all the parts of speech to the young learner at this stage of his progress, appears to us injudicious, and is inconsistent with our plan. These strange names and definitions cannot but appear unmeaning and repulsive till the want of them is felt, till the pupil has occasion to employ them to facilitate his progress. To burden the memory with unknown terms, and definitions as yet incomprehensible, is needlessly to render the study of grammar disgusting to the youthful mind. In conformity with these views, we shall confine our attention, for some time to come, exclusively to the two important classes of words already presented—the nouns and the verbs.

The noun we proceed to consider first, and for the present, only in its main function of subject noun. The manner of distinguishing nouns from other words; the classification of nouns so far as it appears important for grammatical purposes; and the modifications of form to which they are subjected, whilst employed as subject nouns, must come briefly under our notice. Our attention must also be incidentally directed to another class of words serving to modify nouns, namely, determinative adjectives, as without reference to these, some of the peculiar uses of nouns cannot be fully explained. For more extended discussion of these points, we must refer the reader to § 91; and Additional Observations on Determinative Adjectives, § 158.

are other words, besides the subject noun and verb, employed in propositions? (5) What other functions do nouns perform in the construction of propositions besides that of subject noun? (6) Is the noun, besides this, a constituent part of verbs? Yes; all verbs may be considered as nouns (of a particular class) with an assertive form.]