(20) We may then recognise at least four distinct uses of the infinitive after verbs, which we may call respectively, the objective infi nitive, the infinitive of purpose, the infinitive complementary of the neuter verb, and the infinitive complementary of the active verb to be considered in the next section. Under these, and the class mentioned in the note, we may rank, we believe, nearly all the infinitives which follow verbs, and most of those, too, which follow other words.

It will not be necessary for the learner in passing through a first course in this book to take notice of these distinctions. He may call all complementary infinitives, that is, all infinitives not employed as subject nouns, infinitive modifications, or complements of verbs, nouns, or adjectives, according as they modify one or other of these classes of words. The infinitive used in comparison after as and than, will come under review when we treat of phrases used instead of accessory propositions for the purpose of modification, or what may be considered, if we please, as abbreviated propositions, or contracted accessories. (See 142: 9-15.) What is called the infinitive put absolutely, comes under the same classification. Like the infinitive used after as and than, it is an abbreviated manner of expressing a proposition, by means of an infinitive of purpose. (See § 142: 18, 19.)]

(21) The learner will remember that some verbs take after them exclusively, the infinitive without the particle to prefixed. (22) Of this class are the verbs, called auxiliary, employed in forming the compound tenses. (23) Besides these, the following verbs generally take after them an infinitive without the particle to; bid, dare (=presume), feel, hear, let, make, need, see; and sometimes, behold, have, know, observe, perceive. (24) Examples, I bid him tell.

by to, and seems to be a kind of dative of the infinitive, answers to our infinitive present, active and passive, and to the Latin supines, infinitive future, active and passive, &c., as, Come thú ús tó for-spillanne? comest thou to destroy us? Latin, nos perditum. Hwaether is ethre tó cwethanne? Whether is easier to say. Latin, facilius dictu. Eart thu se the tó cumenne eart? Art thou he that is (art) to come? Latin, Qui venturus est. Heo byth to lufigenne; she is (must be, or ought) to be loved. Latin, Amanda est." Hence the phrases, "house to let," "he is to blame," &c. We find another example of this in the expression, to wit, originally, to wittanne.

(20) How many distinct uses of the infinitive after verbs may be recognised, and how may they be named respectively?]

(21) What form of the infinitive do some verbs take after them?

(22) What class always takes the form without the particle to? (23) What other verbs take the same form of the infinitive after them? (24) Illustrate by examples.

I dare go. I feel it move. I heard him say. He lets him do it, &c.* Most of these verbs take the complementary, or factitive infinitive.

EXERCISE I.-Examples of the objective infinitive for analysis. John hopes to succeed. George wishes to learn. That man desires to overcome his rivals. They sought to enter the gate. Boys expect to become men. The farmer's son began to plough. The rain ceased to fall. Justice ought to prevail. John dared not attempt that work. Seek to secure virtue's rewards. He learned to restrain his passions. That man pretends to be a patriot.

EXERCISE II., III., &c.—Let the learner form a given number of propositions containing examples of this construction.

[EXERCISE IV.-Examples of the infinitive of purpose. You live to eat. We eat to live. She stoops to conquer. Men came to scoff. He rose to address the multitude. Men labor to gain wealth. Multitudes came to see him. EXAMPLES of verbs modified by both objective noun and infinitive of purpose. We sent JOHN TO BRING the letters. James called ME TO TELL me the news. They invited HIM TO SHOW him attention. They invited HIM TO TAKE part in their deliberations.

REMARK.-It may be observed that the first and last examples are different from the rest. In the other examples the infinitives express an action to be performed by the subject of the proposition, but in these the infinitive expresses an action to be performed by the person designated as object direct, or passive object of the verb. They invited HIM for to take a part-in order that he might take a part, &c. All these infinitives may be considered as abbreviated accessory propositions; thus, you live TO EAT — -you live, that YOU MAY EAT; and so of the rest.

EXERCISE V., VI., &c.-Construct a given number of propositions containing examples of the infinitive of purpose.]

(25) What are called the perfect infinitives-that is, the infinitive of the verb HAVE, completed by perfect participles-are used exactly as the simple infinitives, chiefly, we think, as objective modifications. The learner may here be required to write a number of propositions having their verbs modified by these compound infinitives.

*It has been well observed by Grant (p. 193, note 2), "That, with the exception of let, the to is seldom or never omitted after the perfect participle used passively; thus, 'We are bidden to rest,' 'He was heard to say,' 'He was seen to move.""

(25) What is said of compound infinitives?

EXAMPLES.-John expected to have finished his task before this time. He intended to have called upon you before his departure. This man seems to have been wronged on that occasion, &c.

EXERCISE-Form a given number of propositions with verbs modified by compound infinitives, either active or passive.

tek $78. (1) There are some active verbs which, besides the objective modification, take after them another noun complementary of the action expressed by the verb.* (2) Such are the verbs to make, to name, to call, to appoint, to elect, to constitute, to choose, to create. (3) We have examples of this use in such expressions as, “To make David king."-1 Chron. 12: 38, and 32. They named HIM JOHN. They called HIM JOHN. The people ELECTED him PRESIDENT, &c. Here king, John, president, express what was made, named, called, in reference to the passive object. (4) This we may call the noun complementary of the active verb. (5) If we form a question, including as before, the subject and verb, and in addition the objective modification or passive object, the answer to what will be the noun complementary; thus, what were they about to make David? Ans. King-the complementary noun. What did they call him? John-the complementary noun.

[(6) This modification is, like the noun complementary of the neuter verb, more intimately combined with the verb, as regards meaning, than any other form of modification. If we speak of meaning (of the thing expressed), it is the action of the verb modified by this complementary noun, which passes over upon the passive object. If we speak exclusively of the words, the verb and complementary noun

* This noun usually expresses some effect or result produced on the pas sive object (the person or thing indicated by the objective modification) by the action expressed through the verb. The Germans have given the name factitive to a class of modifications including this and (what we have ventured to call) the noun complementary of the neuter verb, together with some other forms of modification yet to be considered. The Germans call the object expressed by nouns, thus employed, the factitive object. We shall have more to say of this whole class of modifications below. (See § 90.)

78. (1) Repeat what is said of some active verbs. (2) Enumerate some of the verbs which are susceptible of this modification. (3) Illustrate by examples. (4) What may we call this species of modification? (5) To what question does it answer? Example.

[(6) Repeat what is said of this modification with the substance of the illustrations and the examples.

combined, are limited by the objective modification. In the example above, it is the action of calling John, or of electing president, that passes over on the party represented by him, not the bare actions of calling and electing; or, grammatically considered, the words calling John, and electing president, are limited by him. In other words, calling John and electing president, may be regarded as compound expressions, indicating a single action, and the objective serves to limit this action.

(7) It is because of this intimate connection with the part of the predicate expressed in the verb, that we have ventured to style this modification by way of distinction, The noun complementary; and yet this close connection is not indicated by the arrangement; since,]

(8) The objective modification is placed between the complementary noun and the verb.

[(9) The objective modification is thus embraced within the compound expression which it limits.

(10) When verbs with these two distinct modifications come to be used in the passive form, they still retain the complementary noun as a modification, whilst the objective modification becomes the subject of the proposition; as, He is called John, He is elected president.*

* It is to be observed that, in languages which possess a form for the accusative, distinct from the nominative, or subject form of the noun, the complementary noun does not retain the accusative form when attached to the passive verb. It always accommodates its form to that of the noun affected by it. When that noun, after the active verb, takes the accusative form as objective modification, the complementary noun assumes the same form; and when it becomes subject noun to the verb passively employed, the complementary noun assumes the same form, and stands as nominative after the verb. It may, when thus used, be called the noun complementary of the passive verb.

In fact, it then scarcely differs from the noun complementary of neuter verbs. If, in the example, He is called John, we consider attentively the compound expression made up of the participle called, and the noun John, we shall find that it performs much the same grammatical function, in reference to the verb is, as a noun or adjective would perform. He is what? Ans. Called John.

(7) Mention the reason of the name given to this modification.] (8) Where is it placed in reference to the verb and objective?

[(9) What is remarked in reference to the objective modification?

(10) What happens when verbs susceptible of this kind of modification come to be used In the passive form?

(11) The verbs ask and teach, take two modifying nouns after them, in the same manner as the class of verbs just considered; but the complementary noun stands in a very different relation to the objective noun following these verbs. In the preceding construction, the complementary noun expresses what the passive object becomes through the action expressed by the verb. Thus, The people elected Washington president. Here president expresses what Washington became by the election of the people. But when we say, The master taught John grammar; He asked John a question; grammar and question do not express what John becomes. And hence, in languages which have an accusative form, and in which verbs of asking and teaching take two accusatives after them in the active voice, the noun expressive of what is asked or taught retains the accusative form, when the proposition is expressed passively. Thus, in the proposition, John was taught grammar, the word equivalent to grammar, in Latin, would be in the accusative form. (See Note.)

(12) In some of the constructions, where two modifying nouns affect the same verb, there is a suppression of the infinitive TO BE.

(13) Thus, in the proposition, They thought him a knave, the words to be may be supplied, and then the construction will come under the class about to be mentioned, in which the verb is modified by an objective noun and a complementary infinitive.]

NOTE-On the construction with ASK and TEACH.-Query? Is it not because ask and teach are actions which may have for their passive objects, both persons and things, that they can take two accusatives after them? We say both to ask a person, and to ask a question. When question is used alone after this verb, it would be considered an objective modification, perhaps, of that class (mentioned before) made by a noun of kindred meaning— the only kind which some verbs admit, and perhaps the only kind expressive of a thing which this verb admits. (It admits, more frequently, a complementary infinitive with an objective of a person.) Now, when we have occasion to indicate the person whom we ask, and that what we ask is a question, it is natural to place both after the verb, as we should place them if singly used as objective modifications. Thus the verb comes, as it were, to

(11) Repeat the substance of what is said of the verbs ask and teach, giving illustration by examples.

(12) What is said of some of these constructions when two nouns modify the verb ! (13) Illustrate by an example.]