CHAPTER V.

OF PREPOSITIONS.

§ 81. (1) Our attention has been hitherto, almost exclusively, confined to the two great classes of words which form the fundamental parts of every proposition-the verb and the noun-the noun employed as subject noun, and the noun employed in the several ministering functions which it performs, without the aid of other words, in modifying both verbs and nouns.

(2) We now introduce a third class of words employed exclusively for the purpose of modification, called by grammarians PREPOSITIONS. (3) This Latin name preposition, indicates what is placed before. (4) It has been given to this class of words because, at least in one of their functions, they are placed (in Latin almost always, and very generally in other languages) before the noun which, with them, forms a complex modification of some principal word. (5) This name can scarcely be defended as appropriate, since it does not apply to this class of words in all the functions which they perform in language, nor even universally in a single function; but as it has obtained the sanction of long and general usage, we shall be contented to employ it.

(6) As the prepositions are comparatively few in number, we subjoin a list of the words generally recognised as belonging to this class, that the learner may have it under his eye in following our remarks. It would, perhaps, save time and labor in his future studies in grammatical analysis to commit this short list of words carefully to memory.

§ 81. (1) Repeat the substance of the introductory remark.

(2) What new class of words is now introduced? (3) What does the name preposition indicate? (4) Why has this name been given to the words of this class? (5) Can the name be defended as perfectly appropriate, and why not?

(6) What reason is assigned for giving a list of prepositions?

(7) A LIST OF THE WORDS GENERALLY CLASSED AS PREPOSITIONS. A-bout, A-bove, A-cross, After, Against, A-long, A-mid, A-midst, A-mong, A-mongst, A-round, At, A-thwart, Be-fore, Be-hind, Be-low, Be-neath, Be-side, Be-sides, Be-tween, Be-twixt, Be-yond, By, Down, For, From, In, In-to, Of, Off, On, Over, Round, Since, Through, Through-out, Till, To, To-ward, To-wards, Under, Under-neath, Until, Un-to, Up, Up-on, With, With-in, With-out.

(8) We may add to these a, a corruption of on, in, un, sometimes of of; and o' still used before the noun clock (and formerly before other nouns) as equivalent to of, or, perhaps, sometimes on, and pronounced nearly like a, the preposition. On and in are equivalent in Anglo-Saxon, or, perhaps, rather in is merely a variation of on. *

* We have omitted in the list above several words commonly classed with the prepositions, but which, manifestly, belong to classes of words whose functions are better defined, and more easily comprehended. The prepositions have been a source of much perplexity to the grammarians, and the inconsistencies and absurdities with which even learned and philosophical authors are chargeable in reference to them, have brought reproach ^n the science of grammar. We therefore adopt the principle of classing no word with them that can claim a place elsewhere. The words which we have excluded are except and save, obviously the imperatives of the verbs except and save, and capable of being always treated as such; concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, touching, which are participles taking an objective modification; during, notwithstanding, accompanying a noun in the case absolute, not followed by an objective, as the grammarians erroneously represent; and near, nigh, next, which are adjectives taking after them, not an accusative, but a dative case, in the same manner as the adjective like, unlike, &c. Round should, perhaps, also be excluded; but as it occurs in constructions that could not be easily analyzed if round is simply considered as performing the functions of either an adjective or a noun, we have thought it best to retain it. But is also classed here as well as with the conjunctions. We doubt whether the accusatives which sometimes follow but, are not always really the objective modifications of a verb suppressed. If so, but is in such cases, as elsewhere, a conjunction. That a word not of the class of verbs takes after it an accusative (the grammarian knows not why), is ample reason to place it among the vexatious prepositions. Doing so is always, we presume, to be taken as a confession of ignorance.

(7) Repeat the list of prepositions; first the simple prepositions, and afterwards the com pound marked by a hyphen (-).

(8) Repeat the remarks made in reference to the prepositions a and o'.

[(9) The words enumerated above perform three distinct functions in our language. (10) We do not mean that each of them severally performs these three functions, but that there are three functions performed by the class taken together; of these functions some perform perhaps but one, some two, and some, again, all three.

(11) 1st. Many of them, together with certain other words never used separately, and therefore called inseparable prepositions, are used in forming compound words. (12) They are prefixed to verbs, nouns, adjectives, and to other prepositions, and in this case generally modify the signification of these words. (13) We have examples in down-fall, for-give, in-still, off-spring, on-set, over-flow, under-stand, up-hold, with-draw, &c., and in several of the prepositions in the list above, of which the component parts are separated by a hyphen. (14) It will be observed that many of the above list are compounds of a, contracted or corrupted from on, and be, another form of by united with other words, generally nouns or adjectives; as, a-cross, a-long, a-midst, a-round, be-hind, be-side, &c.*

(15) 2d. Some of these prepositions are employed alone, and as separate words to modify verbs. (16) (In this case some say that the preposition is used adverbially.) (17) We have examples in such expressions as Keep OFF, equivalent to Keep at a distance; Come ON; He walks or rides ABOUT; Cast up accounts; I keep under my

body."

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NOTE. In the last two examples, and especially in the last, it cannot be alleged that the preposition connects the nouns accounts and body with the verbs, or unites with those nouns in forming a compound modification in the manner about to be described under the next function of this class of words. Under is certainly not, as in the case we are about to describe, a

* In fact, when we have removed all the compounds formed by the union of a preposition with words of other classes, and by the union of two prepositions from the list presented above, the number remaining is very small. We have rendered the distinction between the simple and compound prepositions visible to the eye of the learner, by separating the component parts of those certainly known to be compound by a hyphen.

[(9) How many distinct functions do these words perform? (10) Repeat the remark in reference to their performance of these functions.

(11) What is the first-mentioned use of these words, and what other words are employed for a similar purpose? (12) To what kind of words are they prefixed to form compounds? (18) Illustrate by examples. (14) Repeat the remark about compound prepositions.

(15) Describe the second way in which these words are employed. (16) What is this use of a preposition commonly called? (17) Illustrate by examples.

=to

modification coming in the order of sense between keep and body; but body is either the objective modification of keep under, regarded as a compound verb, or else the expression, keep my body, is farther modified by under = keep my body under. The first is perhaps the correct view of the subject. In this case all the difference between this form of function and the first is, that in the first the preposition is placed before and unites with the verb in forming a compound word, in the last the preposition remains a separate word and comes after the verb. In this latter use of prepositions, our language resembles the German. This language throws much light on the subject before us, since it affords numerous examples of compounds of this kind, in which the preposition in certain constructions is connected with the verb, as in No. 1st above; in other constructions it is detached from the verb, and frequently appears after several modifications at the close of the proposition. When employed in this way after verbs, and not followed by a noun, the grammarians generally call these words adverbs. We think it is more consistent, more convenient, and attended with less perplexity to the learner, to give them always the same name, since in the distinct functions which they perform, they retain the same sense, and since a part of them must be recognised as prepositions, because, as we have shown elsewhere, they render the verb to which they are subjoined transitive, and capable of assuming a passive form. Thus we say, I look upon him, and This man is looked upon; look, which is intransitive without the preposition, becoming transitive and capable of being employed passively, when the preposition upon is added to it.

If we should feel inclined to deviate from the practice of calling these words invariably by the same name, it would be to distinguish those occasions when some of them perform the function of conjunctions. Even this function differs in their case little from their most conspicuous function, that which we arrange third and last in order. In the one case, they are used in connection with a noun to modify a verb, in the other with a proposition instead of a noun to serve the same purpose. It is only necessary, therefore, when we treat of conjunctions, to remark that some of the prepositions are employed to perform similar functions.

(18) 3d. We now come to the third function which these words perform; when united with a noun they serve as a modification to a verb, or to another noun, sometimes, as we shall see hereafter, to an adjective. (19) This use is common to all these words, and is that from which their name is derived, because they are most commonly placed before the accompanying noun. It is the use chiefly regarded in our treatises on grammar, the only use recognised in much that is taught concerning these words.

(18) What is the third function which these words perform? (19) Repeat what is said in reference to this function.

(20) A preposition and noun thus employed, we shall call the NOUN and PREPOSITION modification or complement.* (21) This form when applied to a noun we may call noun and preposition modn. of a noun; and when applied to a verb, noun and preposition modn. of a verb. (22) We believe that all the words in our list of prepositions may be employed in company with nouns in forming modifications for verbs; but some of them cannot be so employed in forming modifications of nouns.t

(23) The preposition most frequently employed in forming a modification of nouns is of. (24) This preposition, followed by a noun, expresses nearly the same meaning as the genitive case modification, already considered. Thus, The hopes of man, and Man's hopes, are equivalent expressions. So of The reward of virtue, and Virtue's reward, &c.

*We are strongly tempted to borrow from some of our predecessors the name adjunct for this species of modification, because of its brevity. The name, however, seems too vague, and equally applicable to some other complements. We suggest it as a substitute to those who may chance to prefer it to our more drawling, but more completely descriptive name—a name which conveys nearly all that has been said to the purpose about this form of modification, embracing merely facts, without leaning on any theory of the functions of these words-true or false. We regard this for the present as a compound modification, consisting of a preposition and a noun, and we enter not here into the controversy about the nature, origin, or use of the preposition.

Even when apparently employed after nouns, this form of modification is supposed by some of the grammarians, perhaps not without reason, to modify not the noun directly, but a verb or adjective suppressed. Thus, in the phrases, The house above, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, &c., the church, situated, or some similar word is supposed to be suppressed. It might also be suspected that of is suppressed after these prepositions, as well as situated before them. If so the phrase, The house beside the church = The house by the side of the church. In this manner all the compounds beginning with be, as before, below, &c., and all the compounds beginning with a, might be dismissed from the list, and the number of these words about which any mystery remains, be greatly reduced. But it is not necessary to trouble the learner in the early stage of his grammatical studies with these speculations.

(20) What name do we give to this form of modification? (21) What distinction in reference to the kind of words to which this modification is applied? (22) Repeat the remark under No. (22).

(23) Which preposition is most frequently employed in forming a modification of nouns? (24) Repeat what is said of the modification made with of, and illustrate by an example.