the influence of the sunbeams. High hills, rocks, and banks waving with natural forests of birch and oak, formed the borders of this enchanting sheet of water; and, as their leaves rustled in the wind, and twinkled in the sun, gave to the depth of solitude a sort of life and vivacity."

EXERCISE II.-Let the pupil write a given number of examples of concrete nouns. This exercise, in the case of young pupils, may, with advantage, be often repeated. Each time it may be prescribed to give a number of examples from one subdivision of these names. 1st, names of persons; 2d, names of animals; 3d, names of places; 4th, names of things of natural production, as minerals, plants, &c.; 5th, names of things of artificial production; 6th, names of spiritual, or immaterial substances.

25. COLLECTIVE NOUNS.-What are called collective nouns may be regarded (1) as a peculiar subdivision of the names of substances. (2) The collectives claim our notice, because some of them are occasionally so employed as to give rise to certain peculiarities of construction, as we shall find hereafter; (§ 56, rule II.) (3) They are called collectives, because they express an assemblage of objects contemplated by the mind as forming a single conception, and capable of being embraced collectively under the same assertion. The individual objects which form such assemblages are contemplated as united together by some common bond, or for some common purpose, and we appropriate to them, as thus united, a collective name. (4) We have examples in the words, army, meaning an organized collection of soldiers; navy, a collection of ships and seamen; society, party, parliament, congress, council, mob, group, crowd, horde, host, &c.

EXERCISE. Let the pupil give a written list of collective nouns.

§ 26. (1) SECOND CLASS: ABSTRACT NOUNS.-The names given to qualities, properties, or attributes, ABSTRACTLY considered; that is, considered separately from the substances, or objects in which they are found, constitute a second class of nouns very distinct from the former. (2) Some of these qualities, or properties, are perceived by the

825. (1) How may collective nouns be regarded? (2) Why does this subdivision of nouns claim a share of our notice? (3) Why are these nouns called collectives? (4) Give examples of collective nouns.

26. (1) What words constitute the second class of nouns? (2) Recite the illustra

senses, as, for example, the properties of external bodies-hardness, softness, the various colors, &c. Others are made known to us by the help of an intellectual process, as, for example, the various properties or attributes of human minds-emotions, passions, feelings, affections, virtues, vices, &c. These attributes or properties, whether of matter or of mind, have obviously no independent existence. They all subsist only in connection with substances, and, apart from these, they have no real being. (3) But we often find it convenient to contemplate these properties separately, or abstracted from the substances in which they exist, and to discourse of them as thus viewed. Hence we give them names, and express our thoughts of them in propositions, in the same manner as we do of substances. (4) To distinguish this class of names from the names of substances, they are commonly called ABSTRAct nouns. Or they may be called NAMES OF ATTRIBUTES; that is, of those qualities or properties which we attribute to substances.

EXERCISE I.-Point out the nouns in the following sentences, and distinguish the abstract names from the names of substances:—

"Whatever promotes and strengthens virtue, whatever calms and regulates the temper, is a source of happiness. Devotion produces these effects in a remarkable degree. It inspires composure of spirit, mildness and benignity; weakens the painful, and cherishes the pleasing emotions; and, by these means, carries on the life of a pious man in a smooth and placid tenor "

The pupil will call "whatever" a noun, since it expresses the subject of several propositions in the beginning of this passage, but he need not give himself any trouble for the present to determine to what class of nouns it belongs.

EXERCISES II. III., &c.--Write out a given number of abstract nouns. 1st. Names of sensible or external attributes. 2d. Names of spiritual or mental attributes, or such as are perceived by the help of an intellectual process.

§ 27. (1) VERBAL NOUNS.-What are called verbal nouns may be considered as a peculiar subdivision of abstract nouns, or names

tions and examples given above and suggest others. (8) Account for the formation of this class of nouns. (4) By what names are they called?

27. (1) How may verbal nouns be considered?

of attributes subjectively employed.* (2) These are called verbals, because they express substantively, or subjectively, that which is expressed assertively by their kindred verbs.

The name verbal seems intended to imply that these nouns are derived from verbs. But, on the contrary, verbs themselves may, with more propriety, be considered as these (so called) verbal nouns with an assumed assertive form. "A verb is a noun and something more." It is a noun with an indication of assertion superadded. This indication is usually expressed by the form of the verb in most languages; but in English for want of verbal terminations, or, rather, through disuse of those formerly employed, we are often left to determine from the construction whether a word is assertively used or not—that is, whether it is a verb or not. It is easy, however, to distinguish the verbal nouns we are now considering from the verb. The one is generally marked by its prefixed particle to, and when this is omitted, as after certain verbs (chiefly those called auxiliary), its relation to these verbs prevents all mistake; the other verbal is distinguished by its invariable termination ing from the verb, though not from the verbal adjective or participle.

(3) We have in the English language two of these verbals for every verb, with the exception of four or five very peculiar verbs of the class called auxiliary verbs-may, can, shall, must. These and will in its auxiliary sense have no correspondent verbals.

(4) One of these verbals consists of what is called the root, or radical form of the verb, generally, with the particle to prefixed. The other consists of the radical form with the termination ing affixed. For example, from the root read we have the two verbals, to read and reading; from print, to print and printing. (5) When

*That is, if being and acting are to be admitted among properties or attributes of things substantial. If not, the verbals are entitled to be admitted as a separate class. But whether we regard them as a subdivision of abstract nouns, or as a distinct class, they claim the particular attention of the learner on account of the peculiar modes of expression and forms of construction which arise from their use in language.

(2) Why is this class of words called verbals?

(8) How many verbal nouns are connected with each verb?

(4) Describe these ver

bals and give examples. (5) Notice the exception in forming the written verbal in ing.

the written radical form of the verb ends in an e mute (that is, not sounded), this e is omitted before the termination ing.

(6) The form consisting of the root with the particle to prefixed, is commonly called the infinitive mode of the verb. (7) But it cannot be classed as a verb, consistently with the definition already given, since it does not express assertion. (8) On the contrary, it is always employed to perform the function of a noun-sometimes that of a subject noun, most frequently that of modifying or completing a verb. (9) In performing this latter function after some few verbs (mostly auxiliaries), the particle to is omitted, and the bare root employed; as, he con READ he is able TO READ. He must go; men dare UNDERTAKE, &c.,= men dare TO UNDERTAKE. (10) As this class of words has been so long known by the name of infinitives of verbs, we shall continue to call them infinitives, whenever we have occasion to distinguish them from other nouns; but by so doing we must not be understood as admitting them to be verbs.

(11) The verbal in ING (as we have remarked in § 14: 5),* very exactly expresses in English that which is predicated—that part of the predicate, which is contained in the kindred verb. (12) For example, John writes. What is asserted of John in this proposition, is precisely that action, which is expressed by the noun writing. In other words, writing expresses a well-known act substantively, or subjectively—that is, in the form to be employed as the subject of an assertion. Writes expresses the same act assertively. (13) In many languages the infinitives express precisely in a substantive, or subjective form, that which is expressed assertively

*The first number, when we use two numbers in a reference, is the number of the section, and the second is the number intended to direct the learner to the answers of the subjoined questions. We may find it convenient to use these numbers, sometimes, to refer more exactly to the part of the section which explains any point under consideration.

(6) By what name is the first of these two verbals called? (7) State the objection to classing it as a verb. (8) What functions does it perform? (9) Is it always preceded by the particle to? Mention exceptions. Give examples. (10) When we call this class of verbals infinitives, do we admit them to be verbs? (11) What does the verbal in ING express? (12) Give example and illustrato. (13) What do the Infinitives of many languages

by the verb. (14) The verbal in ING, employed as subject noun of a proposition, sometimes admits of being interchanged with the infinitive; as, SEEING the sun is pleasant, or To SEE the sun is pleasant. (15) With this exception, these verbals generally perform distinct functions (as we shall see hereafter), and the one cannot (with propriety) be substituted for the other. (16) The verbal in ing is sometimes called the gerund. This is the name given to a form of like use and signification in the Latin language, and it may sometimes be conveniently employed to distinguish this class of verbals, as the term infinitives is used to distinguish the other.

(17) These verbals differ from other nouns, in being capable of taking the same forms of complements, or the same kinds of words to modify them as their kindred verbs. This fact will be considered and accounted for in treating of complements or modifications. (See 76: 32, et seq.)

(18) There are sometimes other nouns formed from the verbs, or perhaps we should rather say in most cases from these verbals, which might from their connection with verbs be also called verbal nouns. Both verbs and verbals sometimes originate from a noun that has nothing to do in its proper sense with the expression of action; as from the noun eye, we have the verb to eye, from hand to hand, &c. But such nouns are in no sense verbals. We only cail those verbals which express in some form the action of their kindred verbs. For example, act, actor, action, agent, all connected with the verbal to act in form, and borrowing an essential part of their significance from it; and command, commandment, commander, connected with the verbal to command. It is not, however, necessary to form verbals of this kind into a distinct class, or to give them any special notice, as there is nothing peculiar in their grammatical functions, and as all grammarians agree in arranging them among the

nouns.

(19) It may also be observed, to guard against mistakes, that

express? (14) Can verbals in ING and infinitives be interchanged, or substituted for each other, and, if so, under what circumstances? (15) Can the one verbal be generally substi tuted for the other? (16) By what name is the verbal in ing sometimes called? (17) What peculiarity distinguishes these verbals from other nouns?

(18) Are there other verbals besides the infinitives and gerunds? Tell what is said of them, and give examples.

(19) Are all nouns formed by the union of the roots of verbs with the termination ing to