can readily increase our stock of propositions. (7) For example, we cannot say with truth, man is happy, for many men are far from being happy. We cannot say, man is esteemed, man is loved, man is admired, man is envied, &c., because these predicates do not ap ply to every man indiscriminately. But we can say without offending against truth or propriety, a virtuous man is happy, an upright man is esteemed, a good man is loved, a great man is admired, a rich man is envied, &c. (8) In these propositions, it will be observed, the assertions are not made of man generally-of man considered as possessing only the necessary and essential characteristics of the human familyof any, or every man; but of a man-some individual man possessing a superadded quality, which does not necessarily, or in reality, belong to all men. The real subject of the foregoing propositions is not the bare word man, but the modified or completed subjects, a virtuous man, a good man, &c. (9) The modifying words virtuous, good, &c., together with the little determinative sign a, are added to the noun (which forms, as it were, the basis or nucleus of the subject), and these together constitute the complete subject.

(10) Various contrivances are employed to complete the subjects of propositions; that is, to express with its proper limitations, qualifications, &c., the exact subject of which we make an assertion. In like manner, there are also various contrivances for expressing the proper limitations, qualifications, &c., of the predicates of propositions.

(11) All these contrivances, for want of a better name, we may, for the present, call MODIFICATIONS of nouns and verbs. (12) They may be divided into two general classes: 1st, modifications effected on the form of the noun or verb; and 2d, modifications effected by the assistance of other words. (13) The first class we shall call simply modifications. When we come to treat of the latter class, we shall call them, after the French manner, COMPLEMENTS (that is,

(8) Of what are the assertions in the examples made-of man expressive of the human race, or of what? (9) What constitutes the real subjects of these propositions?

(10) What is said of the contrivances employed to complete propositions?

(11) What name may be given to these contrivances? (12) Describe the two general classes of these modifications. (13) How shall we designate the first, and how the second class?

completements) of the subject and predicate respectively, or some times modifications of the subject-noun and verb respectively.

REMARK.-(14) The young learner will please remember that the word complement means that which fills up, or completes, and that it is not to be confounded with the more common word compliment, which is wholly unlike it in meaning, though similar in sound.

§35. (1) Our attention for the present is to be exclusively directed to the first class of modifications-those which are indicated by some change effected on the form of the noun or verb; and first, to the change of the form of the noun employed as subjectnoun to express plurality. (2) It may here be remarked that these modifications of the forms of both nouns and verbs-especially of the verbs-are of two distinct kinds; first, those which consist of a change of what is called the root, or radical part of the word without any thing being added to the word; for example, man is changed into men to form the plural. Here the sound of the root is changed or modified, but nothing is added. The second kind of modification is effected by adding a sound to the root; as, for example, the plural of the word book is formed by adding the sound of s; singular book, plural books, the first used to express a single book, the latter a number of books.

(3) There are now only a few nouns in our language that form their plurals by a modification of the sound of the root, or by what we shall call for the sake of distinction a radical modification.*

* We have no appropriate distinctive name in our language for these two kinds of modification. Indeed the fact, on which this distinction rests, has been noticed by few of our grammarians. They have rid themselves of all trouble with nouns and verbs which undergo the radical modification, by setting them aside as irregular. This is a very convenient way of disposing of these words, but it is neither fair, nor philosophical to treat in this manner what is apparently the most ancient species of modifica tion in our own language, in its mother the Anglo-Saxon, and in all the sis

(14) What is the meaning of the word complement, and from what word must it be distinguished?

§ 35. (1) To which class of these modifications are we to attend first? (2) What subdivision may be made of this first general class of modifications? Describe each subordinate class.

(3) What distinctive names may be given to these modifications?

We shall add a list of these after we have treated of the forma tion of the plural by the more usual process, namely, by an addition made to the root or radical form of the word. This for distinction's sake we may call the flexional modification.

(4) Before we proceed to treat farther of these modifications of the forms of words, and in particular of the formation of the plurals of nouns, it will be necessary to give some account of the elementary sounds which constitute words, and of the written signs employed to represent these words to the eye. (5) Without some knowledge of these matters the learner will not be prepared to follow us readily in treating of the variations of form which words undergo in order to accomplish the purposes of language. In fact, we find that without presupposing such knowledge on his part, we cannot treat these modifications in a clear or satisfactory manner. We cannot refer to the different classes of sounds and of letters, without first briefly considering these classes, and putting the pupil in possession of their names.

REMARK.-It is usual to introduce something on the sounds of the language in the beginning of grammars. We think it better not to introduce this discussion till such time as it is needed, and must be applied in treating of the contrivances of speech. Though its introduction here must for a short time suspend our remarks on the modification of nouns, the course we pursue saves the pupil the trouble of learning, first a number of dry facts apparently unconnected with the subject of the construction of language, and being again compelled to learn them a second time, when they come to be of practical use.

REMARKS ON THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, AND ON THE SIGNS USED TO REPRESENT THESE SOUNDS.*

36. (1) Words consist either of a single sound uttered by a

ter dialects. Our cousins, the Germans, who have gone far ahead of us in grammatical and philological research, have given these two species of modification distinctive names.

*In pursuing our inquiries on this subject, we must never lose sight

(4) To what subject is it necessary to call the attention of the learner before we treat farther of the modification of the forms of words? (5) State the reasons for introducing this subject, and suspending our remarks on the formation of the plural, &c.

86. (1) How are words constituted?

single effort of the organs of speech, or of a combination of two or more such sounds. (2) Every single sound thus uttered is called a syllable. (3) The term syllable means so much of a word as is taken together; that is, so many letters in written language, as are taken together to form one single sound, or voice—the name by which some have chosen to call human utterances to distinguish them from ordinary sounds.*

(4) A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word of two syllables a dissyllable; a word of three syllables a trisyllable; and a word of four or more syllables a polysyllable.

(5) The sounds employed in articulate language to form syllables are produced by the breath passing through the throat and mouth, and acted upon, in some cases, during its passage by the several organs of speech-especially the tongue, teeth and lips. [See Latham's Eng. Gram. p. 17.]

(6) These sounds are constituted of two kinds of elements, vocal, or vowel sounds, and consonantal modifications of sound. (7) The letters which represent these vocal sounds and consonantal modifications of sound, are called vowels and consonants.

§ 37. (1) VOWELS.-The vocal or vowel sounds are formed by the passage of the breath through the mouth kept in a particular position, without any interference of the tongue, lips, or teeth. (2) These sounds admit of being continued so long as we choose to of the distinction between a sound and a letter. A letter is the sign or representative of a sound—often only of a part of a complete sound or utterance. Obvious as this distinction may seem, it has been sometimes overlooked in treating this part of grammar, and both confusion of thought and confusion of language, as might have been expected, have been the result.

* This employment of the term voice, is not sanctioned by the common usage of our language; though in Latin vox, from which voice is derived, is frequently employed to denote a sound emitted by the human voice.

(2) What is the name given to a single sound? (3) Explain the meaning of the term syllable.

(4) What name is given to a word of one syllable? To a word of two syllables? &c. (5) How are the sounds employed in articulate language formed? (6) What two kinds of elements constitute these sounds? (7) What are the letters which represent these distinct elements of articulate sounds called?

§ 37. (1) Describe the manner in which vowel sounds are formed? (2) What is said of

keep the mouth in the same position, and pass the breath through it. (3) They can be uttered alone, being complete sounds, and hence may constitute a syllable or a word.

(4) The vowel sounds are represented in the written English language by the letters, a, e, i, o, u; which are hence called vowels. (5) The letter y also represents a vowel sound-the same sound as i or e-when found in the middle or end of a syllable. (6) W, also, in the middle or in the end of a syllable is generally considered a vowel. Sometimes it represents the sound of u, as in now, cow, vow, &c.

[(7) In many cases it is, as the language is now pronounced, a mere quiescent or otiose (idle) letter in the written language, having no corresponding sound in the spoken language. This hap pens when it follows the vowel o; as, in low, blow, flow, follow, &c. Sometimes it indicates the particular sound which the preceding vowel represents. This happens when it follows a; as in law, bawl, raw, &c. And sometimes it combines with the vowel e; in which case it is sounded nearly like u. In our language it can never stand alone in a syllable. It must be supported by another vowel. In this it differs from y, as well as from all the other vowels.]

(8) W and y are commonly reckoned consonants when they begin a syllable. [(9) Semivowels-the name given to them, when they occupy this position, by some modern grammarians—is a much more appropriate appellation, if the older grammarians had not already applied it to another class of sounds, or rather as we have ventured to consider and treat them-modifiers of sounds.

(10) The vowel sounds in the English language are much more numerous than the letters which are used to represent them. (11) The letter a represents three or four distinct sounds, as may be seen in the words late, man, far, ball. E represents the two distinct sounds found in the words, me and met; i the two found in the

our power of continuing these vowel sounds? (3) Can these be uttered alone? What follows as a consequence?

(4) By what letters are the vowel sounds represented? (5) What is said of y? (6) What of w?

[(7) What further is said of w?]

(8) When are w and y reckoned consonants? [(9) What other name has been applied to them by some grammarians, and what is said of this other name?

(10) Have we a distinct letter to represent each distinct vowel sound in our language? (11) How many distinct sounds does the letter a represent? How many the letter e? &c.