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APPENDIX ON PUNCTUATION.

$160. (1) In spoken language pauses are necessarily introduced that the speaker may have opportunity to draw his breath. (2) But at the same time that pauses directly serve this indispensable purpose, a part, at least, of these necessary rests of the voice are so managed by good speakers as to mark incidentally the grammatical and logical divisions of discourse; and besides this pauses are often introduced for rhetorical purposes. (3) The pauses which mark grammatical divisions of discourse may be arranged in two classes; namely, those which consist of a mere rest or suspension of the voice, and those which consist of a rest preceded by a full cadence, or closing fall of the voice. (4) In continued narration, regular cadences and full pauses are used to close the enunciation of portions of discourse which, forming each complete sense, stand grammatically independent of what precedes and what follows. (5) Such portions of discourse are commonly called sentences.* (6) Rests or pauses without a full cadence of the voice are used in speaking to mark the grammatical and logical divisions which occur within the limits of a single sentence, exclusive of the final pause.t

(7) In written language a number of diacritical marks called points (often improperly named pauses, we object even to calling them signs of pauses) are employed for the same purpose of marking the gramma

*See note (a) at the end of this appendix.
See note (b) at the end of this appendix.

§ 160. (1) What is the direct purpose of pauses in spoken language? (2) For what other purposes are pauses employed incidentally in speech? (3) In what classes are pauses which mark the divisions of sense arranged? (4) For what purpose is the pause preceded by a full cadence employed? (5) What name is given to a portion of discourse closed by a full cadence? (6) For what purpose are pauses without a full cadence employed in speech? (7) What contrivance has been adopted in written language for the purpose of marking

tical and logical divisions of discourse not to represent pauses. (8) This contrivance of written language is called PUNCTUATION, by others, perhaps more properly in some of its applications, INTERPUNCTION. (9) It is manifest that this contrivance has a close connection with grammar; and that a knowledge of its principles, founded as they are upon grammar, is important to every one who has occasion to commit his own thoughts to writing, or to peruse understandingly the writings of others, since a judicious use of punctuation contributes greatly to the perspicuity of written discourse.*

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THE FULL POINT or Period.—(10) The point employed to indicate the end of a sentence-the completion of a construction independent in sense and in grammatical structure-is called a full point (.), or period. (11) It is necessary to observe here that the same point, or mark is used to indicate contractions as, Mr. master (pronounced mister); M. P. member of parliament ; i. e. — id est (in English that is); &c. ̧et cætera. (12) When a point indicating contraction occurs at the end of a sentence, another point is not added, but the same point serves both to indicate contraction and for the purpose of punctuation. This happens most frequently with the phrase &c., as no contraction is so likely as this to occur often at the close of a sentence. For example: His brother sent him his clothes, books, papers, &c. Here the point after &c. supersedes the use of the full point required to close the sentence. (13) In correct orthography every new sentence commences with a capital, or large letter, which serves (except when the first word for other cause has a large letter) to mark the division of sentences, and enables us the more readily to dispense with the repetition of the point to mark the punctuation. (14) The learner may be warned that the occurrence of a point as a mark of contraction does not supersede the use of any other, except the full point. The comma, semicolon and other points follow &c. and other contractions, when the sense and construction require their use. (15) In interro

*See note (c) at the end of this appendix.

the divisions of sense which are marked by pauses in spoken language? (8) What is this contrivance called? (9) Repeat the remarks made in reference to the importance of punetuation.

(10) What is the point employed to indicate the termination of a sentence called? Describe the form of this point inclosed above in parenthetic marks. (11) For what other purpose is this same point or mark employed? (12) What is done, when a point used to Indicate contraction occurs at the end of a sentence? Illustrate by an example. (13) What circumstance enables us the more easily to dispense with the second point on such occasions? (14) Does the occurrence of a point indicating contraction supersede the use of any point except the period? (15) By what other marks is the use of the period or full point superseded?

gative and passionate forms of expression the use of the full point at the end of a sentence is superseded by the marks of interrogation and of exclamation.

(16) Three distinct signs are employed to indicate the more or less marked divisions which may occur within a sentence. These signs or marks are called the comma (,), the semicolon (;) and the colon (:). (17) The comma, which marks the lesser intersections, or cuttings (the term comma means a cutting) of discourse, or rather of a sentence, is the point of this class which comes into most general use; especially with our modern authors, who generally strive to avoid the long and complicated constructions freely employed by the writers of the seventeenth century.

USE OF THE COMMA. (18) We may distinguish three purposes for which the comma is employed: 1st.-To separate the propositions which follow one another, or are intermixed in compound constructions; or to separate the several co-ordinate propositions, or members or modifications of propositions which an author chooses to connect in the same sentence: 2d. To inclose something (which is, at least, grammatically independent) within a construction: and 3d.-To indicate an ellipsis or suppression of a word.

(19) Of the first two uses (the principal uses, and closely allied to each other) we have furnished abundant exemplification in the consideration of compound and of combined or connected propositions. We have in treating of these classes of propositions exhausted all that we have to say, whilst we are confined to the mode of punctuation now in use. We consider it the most judicious way of teaching the use of the comma especially, to point out where it is usually introduced in compound and complicated constructions, when we are engaged in the analysis of such constructions, and when the pupil is called upon to furnish examples of these constructions. By requiring him to point all his examples, he comes without labor to learn the principles of punctuation (so far as our present system has any principles), and to apply them practically. We confine ourselves at present to a partial recapitulation of what we have already taught in illustration of the first two uses of the comma.

(16) How many distinct signs are employed to mark the divisions within a sentence? Name these signs, and describe their form. (17) Which of these three points is in most general use with modern writers? What is the original meaning of the word comma?

(18) For how many distinct purposes is the comma employed in written language? Mention the 1st purpose; the 2d purpose; the 3d purpose.

(19) Where has abundant exemplification of the first two uses of the comma been furnished already? Repeat the substance of the remarks in reference to the best manner of teaching the application of the comma,

1st. (20) As to the first purpose; the comma is often employed in separating accessory from their principal propositions. (21) The employment of the comma (as we have already had more than one occasion to observe) is not in all cases of this kind determined by fixed usage; and neither the customary interposition, nor the customary omission of this sign can be always explained by an appeal to clear and well settled principles. (See note (c) at the end of this appendix.)

(22) Generally speaking, the comma is not interposed between substantive or adjective accessories and the principal propositions to which they are attached. (The substantive accessory used as subject is generally separated by a comma, § 103.) (23) On the contrary, most of the adverbial accessories are either uniformly separated from their principal propositions, or the usage in reference to them is not uniform. (24) The accessories used in comparison of the intensities of qualities with the conjunctions as and than are not generally separated from the principal proposition by a comma, nor the adverbial accessories of time preceded by the prepositions before, after, since, when these accessories follow the principal proposition. (25) When the construction is inverted, and such accessories precede the principal proposition, they are generally separated by interpunction.

(26) When independent, or co-ordinate propositions are connected, a comma is always interposed; and when co-ordinate members of propositions, or co-ordinate complements are arranged together, a comma should be interposed, except when a conjunction is placed between such co-ordinate members and such complements. (27) A conjunction interposed sufficiently indicates the separation of words thus employed and the nature of the construction. For further details we refer back to the remarks on punctuation which follow the discussion of the different forms of compound propositions, and of the different modes of connecting co-ordinate propositions together in the same construction.

(20) What kind of propositions is the comma often used to separate? (21) Repeat the observation in reference to the separation of accessory from principal propositions by a

comma.

(22) What classes of accessories are generally not separated by a comma? (23) What class is most generally separated? (24) Enumerate some adverbial accessories which are not generally separated by interpunction. (25) What happens when the construction is inverted, and the accessory precedes the principal ?

(26) What is said of the punctuation of co-ordinate propositions? What of co-ordinate members of propositions, and of co-ordinate modifications? (27) Mention the cases in which the comma is omitted between co-ordinate words and the reason

2d. (28) We have already observed on several occasions the use of the comma for the second purpose, that of inclosing a word, phrase or proposition within a construction. We have examples in the case of such adverbs and adverbial phrases as perhaps, possibly, generally, indeed, therefore, then, without doubt, on the contrary, in the first place, beyond dispute, &c. &c., which are generally separated from the rest of the discourse by commas. We have examples also in the case of noun and preposition modifications expressing circumstances, when these are placed before and at a distance from the part of the predicate which they modify; and especially when they modify the proposition generally rather than the predicate particularly. (29) This use of the comma, to separate, or insulate single words or complements, should perhaps be confined to cases in which these words or complements suggest other additional propositions distinct from those in which they are interpolated, or before which they are placed.

(30) We may notice again that the words by which we address persons to call their attention, &c., whether their own names or pronouns or appellations of respect and honor as Mr., Sir, My Lord (in a word, what are known by the name vocatives), are usually separated by a comma from the adjoining proposition. (31) The noun in apposition, especially when followed by a train of modifying words, is generally separated by commas (and perhaps should in consistency be always separated, when it follows the principal noun) from the proposition in which it occurs. (32) The explicative, or epithetic proposition (which, as we have had occasion elsewhere to observe, bears a strong analogy to the noun in apposition) should always be inclosed, or cut off from the rest of the construction by commas.

3d. The third use of the comma to indicate ellipsis is altogether peculiar, arbitrary, as it seems to us, in its application, and little, if at all, connected with the other uses of this mark. (33) In this use, it indicates the suppression of a verb which belongs in common to two or more successive propositions, but which is expressed only in the first. (34) Examples: "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist." The comma after "Virgil" indicates the suppression

(28) What examples are referred to of the second use of the comma? (29) To what cases should this use of the comma in insulating single words and complements, perhaps, be confined?

(30) Mention another class of words usually separated by interpunction. (31) What is said of the noun in apposition? (32) To what kind of accessory proposition is reference made as the last example of this use of the comma?

(33) Describe the third use of the comma. (34) Illustrate this use by examples.

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