Points to be attended to in the Erection and Conservancy of Camps.

Dig a trench round each tent, 4 inches deep, and the width of the spade, and carry it into a good surface drain running in front of the tents, with a proper fall. Place the tent on the ground and do not excavate, or to a slight extent; in a camp of position, the tents can sometimes be raised on a wall constructed of stones, or even earth, if this can be plastered over. Whenever possible, let the floor of the tent be boarded, the boards being loose, and able to be removed. If there are materials, make a framework elevated a few inches from the ground to carry the boards. If boards cannot be obtained, canvas or waterproof sheets should be used; whatever is used, take care that nothing collects below, and move both boards and canvas frequently to see to this, and scrape the earth if it is at all impregnated. If straw is used for bedding, get the men to use it carefully; to place pegs of wood or stones, and make ropes of straw running from peg to peg, so that each man may keep his own place neat; or to make mats of straw of a triangular shape, and 3 or 4 inches thick. Take care that the straw is kept dry, and never allow the men to use green foliage or any damp substance. Have the sides of the tent thoroughly raised during the day, and even at night, to leeward. Whenever practicable (twice a week if it can be done), the tents should be struck, the boards taken up, the surface well cleaned, the worst part of the straw removed and burnt.

In a camp of position dry paths should be constructed between the different roads; latrines should be dug in rear of the stables, and not too near the kitchen, and en échelon with the camp; for a standing camp each latrine should be a trench 20 to 50 feet long, according to the size of the camp, 10 deep, and 2 wide at the top, and 3 at the bottom. The earth thrown out should be arranged on three sides. It should be screened by branches of trees, and several inches of earth should be thrown in every day.' When 4 feet from the surface, it should be filled in and another dug, the earth of the old one being raised like a mound to mark the spot. Close to it an urinal should be constructed, of a sloping channel, paved as well as can be, and leading into the latrines, or of a tub which can be emptied into it, and, as far as possible, men should be prevented from passing urine round their tents. In camps for a few days a trench 12 paces long, 2 feet deep, 2 feet wide at top and 1 foot at bottom, is sufficient.

A corps of scavengers should be immediately organized to clean away all surface filth, and to attend to the latrines and urinals. All refuse must be completely removed; it is a good plan to burn it. Both in peace and war, encamping ground should be often changed, and an old camp should never be re-occupied.

In addition to tents, the men may be taught, if possible, to house themselves. Huts of wattle should be run up, or wooden sheds of some kind. In war, men soon learn to house themselves. Luscombe gives the following account of the huts in the Peninsula ::

"A cork tree or evergreen oak with wide-spreading branches was chosen, a lower branch was nearly cut through, so as to allow the extreme points to drop to the ground. Other branches were then cut from adjoining trees and fixed in a circle in the ground, through the branch, on which their upper branches rested. Smaller branches were then interwoven to thicken the walls, and the inside was lined with the broom

The Regulations direct 2 or 3 inches of earth.

plant, which was thatched in. The door of the hut was put due east, so that the sun might pass over it before it reached the horizon."

This hut was very cool during the day, but very cold at night, and thus "very prejudicial to health."

Lord Wolseley states that many English officers and the Sardinians generally, in the Crimea, made comfortable huts in the following way :—A space was dug out 2 feet deep, and the size of the hut; those made to contain 6 Sardinian soldiers were 14 feet 3 inches long, and 7 feet 1 inch wide in the clear. Gables were then built of mud or stone, or made of boards or wattle and daub; the gables were 2 feet wider than the excavation, so as to form a shelf all round; a door was in one and a window in the other. The fireplace was made of brick or mud, or simply cut out of the face of the earth in one of the side walls, a flue being bored in a slanting direction, so as to come out clear of the roof, and being provided with a chimney 2 feet in height. The pitch of the roofs should be at an angle of 45°.1

Underground huts are sometimes used in camps; they are, however, dangerous; they are often damp, and are difficult of ventilation. In cold, dry countries, however, they are warm, and the Turks have constantly used them in campaigns in winter on the Danube. They have, however, frequently suffered from typhus. If used, there should be two openings besides the chimney, so as to allow a current of air; and a spot should be chosen where it is least likely water will gravitate. But underground huts are always to be discouraged if any substitutes can be found. Sometimes the side of a hill is cut into, and the open top covered with boards and earth. This is as bad as an underground hut.

Hospital Encampment of 9 Marquees and 14 Tents.

cit.

FIG. 103.-Measurements are in paces to centre poles of marquees. Total

depth, 116 paces. Total length of front, 116 paces.

1 Drawings of various kinds of huts and bivouacs are given in the Regulations, op.

VOL. II.-15

Hospital Encampment.

When marquees are available, and a good piece of ground can be selected, the best plan is to arrange the marquees in the form of a triangle. The figure shows the plan proposed by the late Surgeon-Major Moffitt, who paid great attention to this point. In the plan 9 marquees are arranged, but 3, 5, 7, or a larger number than 9, may be equally well placed in the same order. There is good exposure to air, and convenience in administration. The Regulation plan' is rather different, groups of 12 tents being arranged in lines, 5, 4, and 3, so as to alternate in position.

SECTION II.

THE FOOD OF THE SOLDIER-ARMY REGULATIONS.

The "Army Medical Regulations" place the food both of the healthy and sick soldier under the control of the medical officer. He is directed to ascertain that the rations of the healthy men are good, and that the cooking is properly performed; the amount of food for the sick is expressly fixed. On taking the field, the principal medical officer is ordered to advise on the subject of rations, as well as on all other points affecting the health of the troops. It will thus be seen that a great responsibility has been thrown on the Medical Department, and that its members will be called upon to give opinions on the quantity of all kinds of food supplied to soldiers; on the composition of diet; on the quality and adulteration of the different articles; and on their cooking and preparation.

In the case of soldiers and sailors, definite quantities or rations of food must be given. It is, of course, impossible to fix a ration which shall suit all persons. Some will eat more, some less, but certainly every scale of rations should err on the side of excess rather than defect.

The following are the rations of the chief European armies:

English Soldier on Home Service.

The English soldier receives from Government 1 tb of bread, and 2 tb of meat, and buys additional bread, vegetables, milk, and groceries. The following table shows his usual food:

Nutritive Value in Ounces (avoir.) and Tenths of Ounces.

Calculating this by the tables given at pp. 214-215, Vol. I., it would give

The quantity of nitrogen is considerably below that of the standard diet, while the amount of carbon is nearly correct, only this is given chiefly in the form of carbo-hydrates, and not as fat. The diet would be improved by the addition of more meat or of cheese, and by the addition of butter or of oil. So also, while fresh succulent vegetables are sufficient, the use of peas and beans, as in the French army, would be very desirable.'

Using the table at p. 218, Vol. I., and taking the bread 4th crust and ths crumb and the "other vegetables" as cabbage, the total energy obtainable in the body from the soldier's daily diet appears to be equal to lifting 3,542 tons one foot. The amount for the internal and external mechanical work of the body being taken at 600 tons lifted a foot, there remain 2,942 tons for the animal heat and all the other processes.

The accessory foods are rather deficient in the soldier's food, and vinegar especially should be used. Robert Jackson very justly insisted on the importance of vinegar as a digestive agent and flavorer, as well, no doubt, as an antiscorbutic. He remarks on the great use of vinegar made by the Romans, and possibly the comparative exemption which they had from scurvy was due to this.

The diet of the soldier on foreign stations is stated under the several headings when it differs materially from that of home service, and the alterations in the diet which should be made under circumstances of great exertions are given in the proper chapter.

In the time of Edward VI. the English soldier's rations during war were meat 2 lb, bread 1 b, wine 1 pint (Froude).

No scale of diet is laid down for war, and probably it would be fixed at the time, and in view of the possible character of the campaign. The war Scale should be very liberal, and every article ought to be issued by the supply Department. It would be probably a good plan to have the supply under two headings, the "usual" and the "extra" articles, the latter being intended for special occasions, such as forced marches, rapid movements far from the base of supplies, etc. The usual ration ought not to contain less than 375 to 400 grains of nitrogen. The following is suggested as a liberal and varied war ration, which could be easily supplied under ordinary cases :-Bread, 14 tb; fresh meat (without bone), 1 b; peas or beans, 3 ounces; potatoes and green vegetables, 1 b; cheese, 2 ounces; sugar, 2

That the food of the English soldier is deficient, especially for the younger men, is known also from evidence. The late Director-General (Sir James B. Gibson) strongly urged on the authorities the desirability of increasing the ration of meat, and in the report on the recruiting of the army the same point was brought forward. Inquiries among soldiers showed that the recruits and young soldiers could eat much more; though the old soldiers, many of whom had been long accustomed to take spirits, and who had injured their digestive powers by so doing, took less food. There is no doubt that, taking the army through, the ration, especially of meat, is not enough. For further remarks, see "The Soldier's Ration," by F. de Chaumont, Sanitary Record, February 5, 1876.

ounces; salt, ounce; pepper, ounce; ground coffee, 1 ounce; tea, ounce; red wine, 10 ounces, or beer, 20 ounces. No spirit ration to be given, except under order from the generals of divisions. The nutritive. value of this diet is about 380 grains of nitrogen and 5,000 of carbon.'

The "extra" articles would be kept in readiness by the Supply Department for occasional issue, viz., salt meat, Australian meat, Chicago meat, dried meat (such as Hassall's or M'Call's, or the best market article of the kind), Liebig's extract of meat, pea and beef sausages, biscuits, flour, meat biscuits, rice, lime juice, preserved vegetables, brandy or rum, and vinegar. This plan supposes that the "usual" scale of diet would be issued to the troops, and the "extra" articles under certain conditions, and under order of the general of the division.

Bread (which should be well-baked) should be issued as long as possible; and if biscuit is issued for more than a week, flour or rice should be added to it. When salt meat is issued for several days in succession, vinegar should be given with it. If no vegetables can be obtained, lime juice should be early had recourse to.

The usual alcoholic ration of the troops should be beer or wine, instead of spirits. As all the continental armies issue wine rations in war, there can be no difficulty on the score of transport; and even with beer, though twice as bulky as wine, it is believed that it could be in most cases supplied. But the issue of red wine instead of spirits is strongly urged. For rapid expeditions, when transport has to be reduced to the minimum, the use of concentrated and cooked foods is all-important. men can carry enough for seven or eight days, and are then independent of all base of supply.

The

Pea and flour sausages, meat biscuits, and dried meat, are the best to use; and the issue of cheese and bacon fat, if it can be obtained with these, gives a diet which is fairly nutritious and not disagreeable. The following would be the weight of food which would last a man for a week, and render him independent of the Commissariat during that time :-Biscuit, 2 lb; pea or flour meat sausage, 4 b; dried meat, 2 b; sugar, b; tea,b; cheese, 1 b;-total, 10 b. That is to say, a weight of 10 b, which would be lessening day by day, would, if properly used by the men, carry them through a week's labor, and although, of course, a meagre diet, would yet enable them to do their work.

The extract of meat, as an extra ration, is intended for another purpose. It has a great restorative power, and should be kept for special cases, such as the following :

1. It is expected the army, after a rapid march, will meet the enemy,

It may be suggested that chloride and phosphate of potassium, and perhaps a little citrate of iron, might be added to the common salt.

For further remarks see "Military Hygiene," a lecture by F. de Chaumont, Journal of the United Service Institution, 1870.

3 Steam baking ovens have been used in the Autumn Manœuvres, and have been found very good. Field ovens were also built by iron hoops fixed in the ground. Lord Wolseley gives the following plan:-Take a barrel (with iron hoops, if possible), knock out the head, lay it on its side, after scraping a bed for it; cover it with a coating of 6 or 8 inches of thick mud, except at the open end; pile up sand or earth to a thickness of 6 inches over the mud; arrange a flue at the end distant from the open part, through the mud and earth, of 3 inches diameter, to increase the draught when the fire is burning. Form an even surface of well-kneaded mud at the bottom of the barrel; light a fire in the barrel, and keep it alight until all the wood is burnt; there will then be a good oven of clay, supported by the iron hoops. When heated for baking, the mouth is closed with boards, or a piece of iron or tin. These ovens were used in the Red River Expedition, and answered admirably.