verse, in the sense of all existence, including all the relations binding everything to everything else, is absolute in this meaning of the word; and the universe alone is absolute. Much of the discussion about the possibility of the absolute has turned upon the ambiguity of the word. So also with the question whether there can be knowledge of the absolute. If by the absolute is meant something that exists in itself apart from all knowledge, and if knowledge is considered as a relation between two independent things, the knower and the known, then knowledge of the absolute is impossible. This is Sir William Hamilton's (q.v.) contention, and also Spencer's (q.v.). If knowledge means exhaustive comprehension of every objective detail within the unity of a single consciousness, and yet if consciousness and its object are not looked on as independent of each other, then absolute knowledge would be possible on the supposition of the existence of a being that sustains all reality within its unchanging consciousness (T. H. Green). If knowledge is not synonymous with exhaustive knowledge, and yet if the object of knowledge is regarded as essentially related to the consciousness that knows, and if such an object also stands in essential relation to every other object, then all knowledge is partial knowledge of the absolute. See KNOWLEDGE, THEORY OF.

ABSOLUTE, CAPTAIN. A leading character in Sheridan's The Rivals, the son of Sir Anthony Absolute. He is a young soldier, and the lover of Lydia Languish, to gratify whose unpractical and romantic temperament he makes his suit in the assumed guise of a penniless Ensign Beverley. He thus wins her heart, and proves himself his own successful rival.

ABSOLUTE, SIR ANTHONY. A celebrated character in Sheridan's comedy of The Rivals. He is a choleric and apparently obstinate old gentleman, who is, however, at bottom entirely kind-hearted. He avows his excessive irritability in the first act: "No, no, Mrs. Malaprop. Jack knows that the least demur puts me in a frenzy." But when finally the lovers in the play are united, he shows himself most jovial and sympathetic.

ABSOLUTE VALUE. In the development of mathematics several artificial number systems have been formed, which are used in connection with the primitive system of natural numbers, e.g., negative numbers, — 1, 2. - 3, imaginary numbers, VI, and complex numbers, 3+ V=I, 2 — V3. The natural number which, multiplied by (−1), equals a given negative number, is called the absolute value of the negative number; thus, the absolute value of 2, expressed | 2, is 2. Similarly, the coefficient of VT in an imag inary number is called the absolute value of the imaginary number; thus, the absolute value of √3 (or V3 V1), expressed | V3, is √3. The modulus of a complex number (q.v.) is called its absolute value; thus, the absolute value of 3+ √=2, expressed | 3+ v=2], is 32+ (V2), a usage due to Weierstrass.

ABSOLUTION. The remission of sin and its penalties may be divided into sacramental and canonical-one relating to the forum internum, and constituting the most important part of the

sacrament of penance; the other to the forum externum and devoted especially to the remission of ecclesiastical censure. Their early history is closely connected, as in the first ages of the Church all grievous public sins incurred the penalty of absolute separation from the assembly of the faithful, and reconciliation could be obtained only by undergoing the penance imposed by the Church. The bishops were the chief ministers of absolution; but the whole body of the faithful were consulted as to the term of the public penance, since they, as well as God, were injured by the sin. With the gradual decrease of severity and of public penances, absolution was pronounced by the priest immediately after confession, if he judged the repentance sincere. Formal excommunication, however, could even in later days be remitted only by public absolution by the bishop or his deputy, and certain sins are still 'reserved' to the same authority for judgment. The power of judicial absolution in the name of God is attributed by Roman Catholics to all priests, on the basis of the commission in John xx. 23; the Protestant churches generally ascribe only a declarative power to their ministers, though the Church of England retains the absolute form in the Order for the Visitation of the Sick. The form of absolution, since none was given by Christ, has varied considerably; the Western Church down to the Twelfth Century, with rare exceptions, and the Eastern churches to the present time employing a deprecatory form ("May Christ absolve thee," etc.), for which the indicative form, Ego absolvo te, was definitively substituted by the Council of Trent. The difference in form, however, has implied no change in doctrine. See CONFESSION: PENANCE; DISCIPLINE, ECCLESIASTICAL.

ABSOLUTION, DAY OF. See GOOD FRIDAY (so called from the ancient practice of emphasizing forgiveness upon that day).

AB'SOLUTISM (Lat. absolutus, complete, unrestricted, from ab, away + solvere, to loosen, free). That system of government in which the supreme power is vested in a ruler unchecked It characterized by any constitution or laws. all the ancient monarchies (a brief period in the case of the Roman Empire excepted), and has prevailed in all Oriental monarchies, down to Japan of a few years ago. The barbarian invasions replaced the absolute monarchy by feudalism in Western Europe, but with the growth of towns and the rise of the commercial classes came the necessity for a strong central government to protect the nation against the feudal barons, and the absolute king once more arose, master of a regular army, uniting in himself the different functions of the national life, religious as well as political. A mild form of absolute monarchy is familiar to the student of English history in the House of Tudor, with its monarchs of strong will and arbitrary methods; but a representative absolute monarch of modern times is better seen in Louis XIV. of France, with his famous assertion, L'état c'est moi ("I am the state"). The only absolute monRussia and Turkey. archies existing in Europe now are those of

with those of the other and diffusion takes place. If certain solids containing fluids are brought in contact with other liquids, some of the liquid passes into the solid and absorption takes place. Gases may also be absorbed similarly. Diffusion acting through an animal or vegetable membrane is called osmosis. Much of what is termed absorption in physiology is really osmosis. Most of the tissues of living bodies have the power of absorbing fluids-a property that often continues after death and until decomposition. Animal substances differ in absorbing power according to differences in the liquid, notably if they differ in specific gravity and if the fluids in the substances brought in contact are miscible. The following table from Cheyreul shows the amounts of liquid absorbed by different substances in twenty-four hours:

Activity of absorption, or osmosis, varies with the freshness of the membrane, being great soon after separation from the principal parts; and varies also with pressure, motion, and temperature. Absorption of oxygen by the blood in the lungs is apparently instantaneous, the change in color from dark red to bright red as soon as it arrives at the pulmonary vessels, showing the action of the gas it has taken from the atmosphere. This rapidity of absorption is due to the fact that in the circulation of the lungs the blood is spread out in the fine capillaries over a very large area, and to the incessant motion of the blood in the capillaries. Claude Bernard found that if a solution of iodide of potassium were injected into the duct of the parotid gland on one side of a living animal, the saliva discharged by the corresponding gland on the other side almost instantly afterward contained iodine. In a measureless instant, therefore, the iodine was taken up by the glandular membrane on one side, absorbed by the blood, carried to the heart, absorbed from the blood by the glandular membrane on the other side and furnished to the saliva. It is by this process of absorption that the elements of nutrition are taken from the intestines and conveyed to the tissues they are to nourish; the bones absorb much calcareous matter from the blood, cartilages less, and muscles less still; the brain takes more water than does muscle, and muscle more than bone. The active principles of drugs and poisons are dissolved by the juices in the stomach, and by osmosis pass, unchanged or slightly modified, into the circulation. (See LACTEALS; LYMPHATICS.) Opium dissolved by the liquids of the stomach is absorbed by the membranous lining, taken away by the blood and distributed well through the body; at the brain it acts on the brain cells and produces sleep or narcotism or insensibility. The quickness of absorptive action is shown in using hypodermic injections; a few moments

after the syringe has punctured the skin of the forearm a severe pain in the foot is sensibly relieved.

ABSORPTION, IN PLANTS. The process by which substances are taken into the body. A few plants only, being devoid of any external cover to the protoplasm, are able to engulf particles of food, which may then be digested. The most prominent of these are the Myxomycetes (q.v.), or slime molds, which in the period of their vegetative activity consist of a mass of naked protoplasm (called a plasmodium), sometimes as large as one's two hands. These plasmodia, like huge Amoeba (q.v.), creep about and envelop particles of decaying organic matter, etc., on which they feed. The zoospores, or reproductive bodies, of some Algae and Fungi are also microscopic bits of naked protoplasm, but they probably do not ingest solid food during this period. Inasmuch as the protoplasm of most plants forms on its surface, as the first step of development, a thin jacket of cellulose or some similar material, the taking up of solid substances is thereby absolutely prevented. Whether the body consist of one cell or many, it presents to the surrounding medium a continuous membrane with no visible openings. Through these cell-walls, therefore, neither solid nor gaseous substances can pass without previously undergoing solution. The materials whose absorption is to be explained are (1) dissolved substances or solutes, and (2) the solvent, water.

(1) SOLUTES. The protoplasm itself and its surrounding membrane (the cell-wall) contain a large amount of water (50 to 98%). This water may be conceived of as lying between the particles of which the substances named are composed, much as it stands between the closeset stalks of plants in a marsh. Since water always pervades the structures of plants, substances in order to enter the plant body must be soluble in water. When so dissolved they behave essentially as gases; their molecules, being then free to move apart, tend to distribute themselves equally throughout the solvent. But the diffusion of solutes is greatly retarded by the molecules of the water, so that it is much slower than the similar diffusion of gaseous bodies. It is also retarded somewhat by the particles of cell-wall when these also are encountered in the water. But the distances between the particles of the cell-wall are relatively so great that most solutes are able to pass freely between them. The structure of the protoplasm, however, is such that many substances cannot readily pass through it. Consequently, some materials which can enter the plant body may travel only through the cell-walls and may never enter the living protoplasm. The protoplasm permits at some periods substances to pass through it which at other times are excluded; probably due to ability to alter its structure on occasion. Such substances as can pass through the invisible spaces in cell-wall and protoplasm are therefore free to travel to any part of the plant body. If any such substances be removed from solution through use or storage, they will continue to be supplied from the regions of greater abundance, and consequently of greater pressure, to the regions of lesser pressure, i.e., where they are being used. The fact that different amounts of a given compound enter plants growing in the same soil is explic

able mainly on this basis. Thus, wheat and clover may grow side by side; the ash of the wheat will contain 67.5% of silica, while that of the clover contains only 2.5%. This selective absorption must, however, be in part referred to the power possessed by protoplasm of regulating the admission of solutes.

(2) WATER. Entrance of water into the plant to supply losses by evaporation or consumption depends upon similar factors. In a living mature cell, the protoplasm usually lies in a thin layer close to the cell-wall and envelops a water-filled space, the vacuole. (See GROWTH.) Many substances are constructed by plants which cannot ordinarily pass through the protoplasm, and remain dissolved in the water of the vacuole or cell-sap. These substances exert upon the surrounding layer of protoplasm a definite pressure. If they were in gaseous form this would be their gas pressure. As they are dissolved, it is called their osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure of solutes in the water outside the plant is usually less than that of solutes in the cell-sap. As the solvent moves toward the region of higher osmotic pressure, i.e., from a place where there is a greater number of water molecules in unit-space, to a place where there are fewer, water usually enters the plant. But if at any time the conditions are reversed, the solutes outside the plant having higher osmotic pressure than those inside, water will leave the plant. This happens in nature sometimes, and it is this condition that makes possible the destruction of weeds by common salt. Gases are absorbed in the same manner as solids; the apparent difference in their absorption by land plants is due to the fact that they mostly become dissolved (and so fitted for absorption) only when they come into contact with the water saturating the cell-wall. This condition among the larger land plants exists only in the walls of cells bordering intercellular spaces. (See AERATION.) While land plants absorb gases chiefly from the atmosphere, doubtless some absorb them by the roots, notably the oxygen required for their own respiration.

ABSORPTION, ELECTRICAL. A phenomenon observed in electrical condensers (q.v.), in which the dielectric or insulating material between the conductors is non-homogeneous, e.g., a piece of glass. It is noted that if such a condenser is charged, then discharged and allowed to stand for a short time, there will appear another charge. If this is discharged, another charge will soon appear. These secondary charges are said to be due to electrical absorption. See ELECTRICITY.

ABSORPTION OF GASES. The phenomenon of the taking up or absorbing of gases by liquids and solids. The number of cubic centimeters of a gas which can be absorbed by one cubic centimeter of a given liquid at 15° C. is called the "absorption coefficient" of the liquid for the gas. The absorption coefficient of water for ammonia is 756; for carbon dioxide, 1.0; for chlorine, 2.4. The mass of the gas absorbed varies directly as the pressure; so, if a gas is forced into a liquid under high pressure, and if the pressure is afterward released, the gas will be evolved. This is what happens in the case of beer and aerated waters. The absorption of gases by solids is called occlusion. The most conspicuous illustration of this is the power of palladium to occlude nine hundred times its own volume of hydrogen.

ABSORPTION OF WAVES. Waves of any kind in any medium carry energy with them; and, if the energy decreases, the medium is said to absorb it or to exhibit "absorption." Thus, if white light falls upon red glass, i.e., if etherwaves which affect the normal human eye with the sensation "white" are incident upon glass which appears red to the same eye, all the waves except those which produce the sensation red are absorbed by the glass, while the others are transmitted. Bodies differ greatly in the quality and quantity of their absorptive power; but it is a general law that the absorptive power of a body equals its emissive power under the same conditions. (See RADIATION.) Absorption is due to the presence in the pure medium carrying the waves of some portions of matter whose own natural period of vibration is the same as that of the period of the waves; and, therefore, these portions of matter are set in vibration by “resonance" (q.v.). Thus, if a person sings a pure note near a piano it may be observed that the particular string of the piano which of itself gives the same note is set in vibration by the air-waves sent out by the singer.

If air-waves of any length fall upon a soft body, such as a cushion or a curtain, there is absorption, as is shown by the fact that the reflected waves are much less intense than the incident waves. The energy thus absorbed is not spent in emitting other waves, but is dissipated throughout the body producing heat effects. Similarly, if ether-waves fall upon an absorbing body, the energy absorbed is dissipated in general throughout the smallest particles of the body producing heat effects. See, however, FLUORESCENCE.

AB'STINENCE. See FAST.

Associations

AB'STINENCE SOCIETIES. to promote total abstinence from alcoholic liquors as beverages. See TEMPERANCE.

ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs, away + trahere, to draw). In logic, the process by which the mind separates out marks or characteristics which are similar in various objects, and disregards the marks or characteristics by which the objects differ. It also occurs where characteristies of particular objects, or classes of objects, are replaced by a more general characteristic. An instance of the first kind is the formation of the class "biped" by the inclusion of all twolegged animals. An instance of the second type is the substitution of the general mark “reproduction" for the more special marks, "viviparous," "oviparous," "fissiparous," etc. The result of this process is also called an abstraction, or, if it appears as a word, a concept. The psychology of abstraction consists in describing the way in which the attention, in passing from one object to another, fastens upon an element common to all and dissociates it from its context. Abstraction is carried out in a state of active attention (see ATTENTION), as when the philologist searches out common or allied roots in different languages, or when the geologist identifies strata in different localities and forms the abstraction of a single epoch in which they were laid. The process is, however, facilitated by the sheer decay of mental complexes; a decay which obliterates small differences and reduces mere similarity to indistinguishableness. It thus comes about that we form sketchy, "abstract" images-as of "pen," "house," or "book"

-from similar things, and that one of these schematic images is sufficient to call up a large number of more concrete (unobliterated) ideas whenever an appropriate incentive is given. (See ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS.) Consult: Ř. H. Lotze, Logic (Oxford, 1888); W. James, Principles of Psychology (New York, 1890).

AB'STRACT OF TITLE. A brief and orderly statement in writing of the successive convevances and other events through which a person claiming to own a parcel of land derives his title. A purchaser or mortgagee of real property is entitled-by law in England, by custom in the United States-to receive such an abstract from the vendor or mortgagor in advance of the consummation of the transaction, and it thereupon becomes the basis of the examination of title (q.v.), which it is the duty of the solicitor or attorney of the purchaser to make. A perfect abstract should furnish a complete history of the title sought to be transferred, showing not only

the origin and nature of the vendor's interest, but also all incumbrances and other interestssuch as mortgages, easements, recorded judg ments, trusts, etc.-which affect his title. In England, where the practice of recording deeds does not generally obtain, the abstract is based upon the title deeds (q.v.), which are carefully preserved and transmitted with each transfer of the estate; while in the United States the public records of conveyances are the principal, but not the exclusive, source of the information upon which the maker of the abstract proceeds. (See RECORDING OF DEEDS.) Consult: Warvelle. A Practical Treatise on Abstracts and Examinations of Titles to Real Property (Chicago, 1892); and also Warvelle, A Treatise on the American Law of Vendor and Purchaser of Real Property (Chicago, 1902); Comyns, On Abstracts of Title (London, 1895).

ABSURDUM, REDUCTIO AD (Lat. a reducing to an absurdity). The method of proving a truth by showing that to suppose the proposition untrue would lead to a contradiction or absurdity.

ABSYR/TUS (Gk. "Αψυρτος, Apsyrtos). In the legend of the Argonautic expedition (see ARGONAUTS), the younger brother of Medea. She carried him off with her when she fled with Jason from Colchis, and, according to the common version of the story, deterred her pursuing parent, Eetes, by cutting the boy in pieces and scattering his body on the sea for his father to gather up.

ABT, äpt, FRANZ (1819-85). A German song writer and musical conductor. He was born at Eilenburg and sent to the Thomasschule at Leipzig to be educated. Here he met Mendelssohn, who is said to have persuaded him to follow a musical career. He was appointed kapellmeister at the court theatre of Bernburg in 1841, but soon relinquished this position for a similar one at Zürich, where he remained for eleven years, obtaining great popularity as a teacher, composer, and leader of singing societies. He was called to Brunswick in 1852 as second musical director at the court theatre, was appointed court kapellmeister in 1855, and pensioned in 1881. He came to the United States in 1872 at the invitation of several choral societies, and everywhere met with a cordial reception. Abt was a prolific composer, and at the time of his death had published nearly 600

books (Hefte), some of them containing from twenty to thirty numbers. He belongs to that group of composers which includes Truhn, Kücken, and Gumbert. His vocal compositions are remarkable for their simplicity and clearness of melodic construction. Among these may be mentioned: Wenn die Schwalben heimwärts zich'n ("When the Swallows Homeward Fly"); Gute Nacht, du mein herziges Kind ("Good Night, My Child"); Schlaf' wohl, du süsser Engel ("Sleep Well, Sweet Angel"); Leuchtendes Auge ("Marie, or, When I Am Near Thee").

ABU, ä'bōō. One of the Aravulli mountains (q.v.), India, over 5000 feet high. It is held in high esteem by the Jainas and is celebrated for its two magnificent temples of white marble, supposed to have been built in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and considered the finest specimens of Indian architecture.

which in modern Arabic often becomes abbreviABU, ä'boo. The Arabic word for "father," ated to Bu. It is prefixed to many Arabic proper names, as the equivalent syllable Ab is prefixed to Hebrew names. Example: Abu-bekr, or more properly, Abu-bakr, the 'father of Bakr.' But Abu, like the Hebrew Ab, often is not to be interpreted literally, but signifies possessor, or is used to indicate even more generally the notion of fullness, largeness, and the like; as in Abulfeda, "possessor of devotion," "the devoted one;" Abner, "the brilliant one," literally "father or possessor of light."

ABU-BEKR, ä'boo-běk'r (his original name was ‘abd al-Ka'bah ibn Abi Kuḥāfah) (570-634). The first caliph, father-in-law of Mohammed. He was a man of great influence in the Koreish tribe. In 632, when Mohammed died, he was made caliph, or successor of the Prophet. After defeating his enemies in Arabia, and warring successfully against Persia and the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, Abu-bekr died (634 A.D.) and was buried at Medina, near the remains of Mohammed and the Prophet's wife Ayeshah (q.v.).

To

ABU-BEKR MOHAMMED IBN TOPHAIL, boo-běk”r mô hãmmed bản to fa-el (1100-85). A famous Arabic physician, mathematician, poet, and philosopher. He was born in Andalusia and died in Morocco. His chief extant philosophical work is entitled Hai ibn Yakzan, "the Living, the Son of the Awake." It depicts the natural progressive development of the human faculties in a Robinson Crusoe born on an island till nature and God are known. secure this communion, positive religion is valuable for the vulgar, but religious doctrines are only exoteric presentations of the mystic truth. The name of the hero and the subject are borrowed from Ibn Sina (Avicenna), with this difference, that while Ibn Sina's hero possesses a supernatural intellect, that of Ibn Tophail personifies a man of ordinary faculties. Later translations: Francisco Pons Bsigues (Saragossa, 1900), and Léon Gautier (Algiers, 1900).

ABU-BEKR MOHAMMED AL-RAZI, äl rä'zê. See RHAZES.

ABU-HASSAN, ä'boo-häs'ån, surnamed THE WAG. The hero of The Sleeper Awakened, one of the stories of the Arabian Nights. He was a citizen of Bagdad who entertained the Caliph unawares and as a result met with several inter

esting experiences, finally becoming the trusted friend and favorite of the Caliph.

ABU JAAFAR IBN MOHAMMED, ä'boo jä’fär bản mô hăm/med, called EL SADIK, "The Righteous" (699-765). A caliph, one of the twelve imams of the Arabians. He wrote a work on alchemy, augury, and omens; and one of his pupils, Abu Musa Jabir ibn Haiyan of Tarsus, compiled a work of two thousand pages, in which he inserted five hundred of the problems of his master. Abu Jaafar is the principal Arabian representative of the pretended art of prophesying from cabalistic tablets, and all the superstitious disciplines of the Arabs are usually ascribed to him, notwithstanding the fact that these pseudo-sciences undoubtedly originated in countries farther to the east.

ABUKIR, ä'boo-kēr'. An insignificant village on the coast of Egypt, about 13 miles northeast of Alexandria, probably the ancient Bukiris. The important city of Canopus was situated in the near vicinity. The castle of Abukir stands on the west side of the bay of the same name, which is west of the Rosetta branch of the Nile. This bay is celebrated on account of Nelson's victory here gained over the French fleet, August 1-2, 1798, the engagement being frequently called the Battle of the Nile. The French fleet was stationed in a curved line near a small island guarded by a battery; but Nelson, with his usual intrepidity, forced a passage with half of his fleet of fifteen vessels between the island and the French line of battle, while the other half attacked the enemy in front. The French admiral De Bruyes was killed by a cannon-ball, and his flag-ship, l'Orient, was destroyed. The French fleet was completely defeated, and only two vessels escaped. Napoleon defeated the Arabs here on July 25th, 1799, and Sir Ralph Abercromby (a.v.) repulsed the French near this point in 1801 (the engagement being known as the battle of Alexandria).

ABU KLEA, äbōō klá ́à. A place in the Sudan situated on the route between Korti and Metemme, both of which are on the great bend of the Nile below Khartum. It was the scene of a battle fought on January 17, 1885, in which the Mahdi's forces were defeated by the English troops under Sir Herbert Stewart. See MAHDI.

ABUL ALA AL-MAARRI, äʼbōōl ä ́lå ål-måärʼrẻ (937-1027). An Arabian poet and philosopher. He was born in Syria, and at an early age lost his eyesight. In his poems-mostly of a philosophical nature-he sets up purity and unselfishness as the highest ideals that man could follow. A collection of his poems was made at Cairo (1306). Consult Kremer, Ueber die philosophischen Gedichte des Abû l-Alâ al-Ma'arri (Vienna, 1888).

ABULCASIM, ä'bool-kä'sêm. Commonly termed by European historians ABUL-KASIS. A famous Arabic physician. He was born at ElZahra, near Cordova. The exact date of his birth is unknown. He died in his birthplace 1106. His great work, Al-Taşrif, an encyclopædia of medicine, is of much interest, the treatise on surgery contained in it being the best that has come to us from antiquity, and still of importance in tracing the progress of surgery. A partial Latin translation of Abulcasim's work was published in Augsburg, 1519; the section on surgery was published in the original Arabie with a Latin translation by Channing (Oxford, 1778, two volumes).

ABULFAZL, ä'bool-fä'z'l, MUBARAK-I ALLAMI (sixteenth century). Vizier and historiographer of Akbar (q.v.), the great Mongol emperor. His chief work is in two parts; the first part (Akbar Numah, or Book of Akbar) is a complete history of Akbar's reign, and the second half (Ayin-i-Akbar, or Institute of Akbar) gives an account of the religious and political constitution and administration of the empire. The style is excellent, and the second part is of unique and enduring interest. The Persian text of the Akbar Namah is edited in the Bibliotheca Indica (1873-87), and a translation is now being issued by Beveridge in the same collection. The Ayin-iAkbar, edited in the Bibliotheca Indica (1867-77), is translated by Blochmann and Jarett (1873-94) in the same series. Abulfazl died by the hand of an assassin while returning from a mission to the Deccan in 1602.

ABULFEDA, ä′bõʊl-fâ-dä', Arabic ABŪ ALFIDA' ISMAIL IBN 'ALI 'IMAD AL-DIN (12731331). A Moslem prince and historian. He was born at Damascus. During his youth he distinguished himself in several campaigns against the Crusaders. He inherited the principality of Hamah, Syria, in 1298, but in consequence of a dispute over the succession the dignity was abolished by the Sultan. It was restored in 1310 by Sultan Malik al-Nasir and bestowed upon Abulfeda for distinguished military services. He was given practically sovereign powers. From 1310 to the time of his death he ruled over the principality, visited Egypt and Arabia, and patronized ings were An Abridgment of the History of the literature and science. Among his important writ

Human Race, in the form of annals, from the creation to 1328. The work is partly a compilation and partly original. It is important as historical material for the era of the Crusades. There are several translations from the original Arabic. A part is contained in the first volume of Muratori, Scriptores Rerum Italicarum. The part preceding the Mohammedan era was rendered into Latin by Fleischer as Abulfeda Historia anteIslamitica (Leipzig, 1831); the part on the life of Mohammed into English by W. Murray (London); and the later part by Reiske and Adler (Annales Moslemici, 5 vols., Copenhagen, 178994). The Geography of Abulfeda is chiefly valuable for the history and description of the Mohammedan world. A complete edition was published by Reinaud and de Slane in Paris (1840); and a French translation by Reinaud appeared in

1848.

ABUL-HASSAN, ä'bool-hås'sån. See JUDAH, BEN SAMUEL.

ABULIA, à-bōō'lï-å. See PSYCHIATRY. ABUL KASIM MANSUR, ä'bool käʼsem mån-soor'. See FIRDAUSI.

ABÚLONE, à-bōō'lô-nâ. A wild tribe in Zam bales province, Luzon. See PHILIPPINES.

ABUL SU'UD, ä'bool su-ood' (1828-). An Arabian poet. He was born in a village of Lower Egypt of poor parents, and was one of a number of pupils annually selected from the primary schools to take the course in languages at the institute founded at Cairo by Mehemet Ali. He at first imitated the elegiac poets of Arabia; afterward his verses, many of which became very popular, were distinguished by a wealth of ideas