in 1178. The King was interred in it in 1214. In the abbey, Bruce and the Scottish nobles met in 1320, to resist the claims of Edward II. to Scotland. Its ruins, which are cruciform, 270 by 160 feet, are very picturesque, presenting lofty towers, columns, gothic windows, etc. The chief industries of Arbroath are flax-spinning, jute-spinning, and the manufacture of sail-cloth. The new harbor, begun in 1841, admits vessels of 400 tons; it is protected by a breakwater. The chief exports are grain, potatoes, fish, pork, and paving-stones. broath is a royal burgh, and, in conjuction with Montrose, Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie burghs, returns one member to Parliament. Population, with suburbs, in 1901, 22,372. The famous Bellrock lighthouse stands in the sea twelve miles southeast of Arbroath.

Ar

ARBUÉS, är-bwas', PEDRO (1441-85). A Spanish inquisitor. He was born at Epila, Aragon; became a member of the Augustinian College at Saragossa, and in 1484 was appointed first inquisitor of Saragossa by Torquemada, inquisitor-general. He was a tireless persecutor of all heretics, real or suspected, and was finally slain through a conspiracy of the friends of his victims. He was canonized by Pope Pius IX. in 1867.

AR/BUTHNOT, JOHN (1667-1735). A Scotch author and physician, the contemporary and friend of Pope and Swift. He was the son of an Episcopal clergyman, and was born at Arbuthnot, Kincardineshire. He studied medicine at Aberdeen, but took his degree at Saint Andrews. Arbuthnot's father lost his preferment at the outbreak of the Revolution. His sons' prospects being thus blighted in their own country, the family were compelled to go abroad to seek their fortune. John went soon after to London, and there supported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1697 he published an examination of Dr. Woodward's account of the Deluge, which brought him into notice as a person of unusual ability. Accident called him into attendance on Prince George of Denmark, who thenceforth patronized him. In 1709 he was appointed physician in ordinary to the Queen, and in 1710 was elected a member of the Royal College of Physicians. On the death of Queen Anne, in 1714, he lost his place at court, and his circumstances were never so prosperous afterward. In 1717, Arbuthnot, with Pope, helped Gay in a farce, entitled Three Hours After Marriage, which, however, proved a complete failure. In 1723 he was chosen second censor of the Royal College of Physicians, and in 1727 he pronounced the Harveian oration for the year. He died at Hampstead in 1735.

Arbuthnot's literary fame rests upon two humorous pieces. In 1712 he published the History of John Bull, one of the most amusing of political satires. After his death appeared (in Pope's Works, 1741) the Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus (q.v.), in which all kinds of pedantry is ridiculed. John Bull as a nickname for England has been traced back no farther than Arbuthnot, and Scriblerus is one of the important sources of Sterne's Tristram Shandy. Arbuthnot was one of the most amiable of men. To him Pope addressed his best Epistle, and Swift said that if there were a dozen Arbuthnots in the world he would burn his Travels.

Consult G. A. Aitkin, Life and Works of Arbuthnot (London, 1892).

ARBUTHNOT, MARRIOT (1711-94). A British admiral. He became a commander in 1746 and a captain in 1747; was commissioner of the navy at Halifax, N. S., from 1775 to 1778; became a rear-admiral in 1778, and in 1779 was appointed vice-admiral and placed in command of the North American Station. In conjunction with Sir Henry Clinton he captured Charleston, S. C., after a long siege, in 1780 (May 12), and in March, 1781, fought an indecisive engagement with a French fleet off Cape Henry. He surrendered his command to Rear-Admiral Graves in July,, 1781, returned to England, and though he saw no more actual service, he became by seniority Admiral of the Blue in 1793. As a naval officer he was absurdly inefficient, being ignorant of even the rudiments of naval tactics, and as a man he seems to have been known to his contemporaries as a coarse and blustering bravo. Consult Ralfe, Naval Biography (London, 1820).

ARBUTUS, är bû-tus or är-bū'tŭs (Lat., the wild strawberry tree). A genus of plants of the order Ericacea. The species, which number about twenty, are mostly European and North American shrubs and small trees. In many species the leaves are evergreen and shining, the branches usually smooth and red. Such a species is Arbutus unedo, the Strawberry Tree, extensively planted as an ornament in parks. It is a native of the south of Europe, and is not hardy in the colder parts of the United States. It is highly valued in California. The flowers, which are white, are produced in great abundance; the fruit, which resembles a strawberry in size and color, is ripened the second year. In this way flowers and fruits occur together, and, with the bright green leaves, make the tree very attractive. The fruit is edible and often utilized, especially in Spain, where sugar and a spirit are manufactured from it. A second species, Arbutus Menziesii, is the madroña of California. It is fairly hardy, and as a tree often attains a height of eighty to one hundred feet. Arbutus Arizonica, a tree forty to fifty feet high, has the bark of the trunk white, of the branches red, which, together with the pale-green leaves, make a pleasing contrast. A few fossil forms have been described under the name Arbutites, from the Eocene of Europe.

ARBUTUS, TRAILING (Epigaa repens). A prostrate or trailing plant, called Mayflower in New England and Ground Laurel in the Southern States, with evergreen leaves, rusty, bristly shoots, and axillary clusters of fragrant, rosecolored or white flowers, opening in early spring; found in sandy or rocky soil, especially in the shade of pines. It grows from Canada to Texas, but is particularly abundant in New England, the Middle and South Atlantic States, as well as in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.

ARC (Lat. arcus, a bow). Any part of a curved line. It is usually limited to a part not including a cusp, and more particularly is applied to part of the circumference of a circle, as in the following statements: The straight line joining the ends of an arc is called its chord. Arcs of different circles are similar when they subtend equal central angles of their respective circles; if these circles are equal, so are the

similar arcs. Circular arcs have the same numerical measure as the central angles which they subtend, and hence are commonly said to measure and to be measured by those angles. Like their subtended central angles, arcs may be considered as positive or negative and as exceeding 360° (see ANGLE). An arc is distinguished as major or minor, according as it is greater or less than a semi-circumference. The arc equaling in length the radius of a circle is called a radian; it is nearly 57° 17' 44.8". There are, therefore, 2 π radians in a circumference. ARC, ELECTRIC. See ELECTRIC ARC and ELECTRIC LIGHTING.

ARC, JOAN OF. See JOAN OF ARC.

ARCACHON, är'ka'shôn'. A French town and favorite watering-place on the Bay of Biscay, in the Department of Gironde, which has grown up since 1854, on the south side of the Bassin d'Arcachon, thirty-four miles southwest of Bordeaux by rail. The fine broad sands are admirably adapted for bathing, and the place is sheltered by sandhills covered with extensive pine woods of the Landes. Its main street stretches two and one-half miles along the shore, with the pine forests immediately behind. The climate is always temperate, averaging in summer 47° F. and in winter 41°. Its numerous villas among the firs are much frequented in the winter by invalids afflicted with lung disease. Scientific oyster culture is practiced here on a large scale. Pop., 1901, 8259. Consult Arcachon (Paris, 1899).

ARCADE (Fr., from Lat. arcus, bow, arch, vault). A row of arches supported by columns or piers, either having an open space of greater or less width behind them, or in contact with masonry. The arcade in Christian architecture corresponds to the colonnade in classical architecture; the difference between them is mainly in the substitution of arches for the straight architrave. The term 'arcade' is sometimes applied to the row of piers, or columns and arches, by which the aisles are divided from the nave of a church, or by which cloisters are inclosed; but it is more generally confined to those series of

ARCADE.

smaller arches which are employed simply for purposes of ornamentation. They form the main decorative feature of both outside and inside mediæval architecture, especially in the form of real or blind galleries, adding a play of light and shade, a richness of detail, and a variety of form that contrast with the early Christian simplicity and the exclusive use of color by the Byzantines. The term is also applied, im

properly, to a glass-covered street or lane with a row of shops or stalls on each side.

AR/CADELT, JACOB. A Flemish composer who assisted in founding the classical Italian school of music. The date of his birth is uncertain, but is believed to have been during the first quarter of the Sixteenth Century. His works are among the masterpieces of contrapuntal music of the Middle Ages. He was the most popular composer of his day, and his popularity induced many persons, for business reasons, to add his name to works written by others. During a residence in Rome (1539-55), as teacher and as singer in the Papal Chapel, he composed many madrigals. His works also include motets and masses. Arcadelt probably died about 1570-75, while in Paris with Cardinal Charles, Duke of Guise, whose service he entered in 1557. Consult: Burney, General History of Music, Vol. III. (London, 1789); Ambros, Geschichte der Musik, Vol. II. (Breslau, 1862-82).

ARCADES, är kå-dez. A masque written by John Milton in 1634 and published in 1645. It was acted shortly after Comus, before the Countess-Dowager of Derby, wife, first of Fernando, Earl of Derby, and afterwards of Thomas Egerton, Lord Ellesmere, when she was living at Harefield, near Uxbridge. It was set to music by Mr. Lawes at the same time. In it the Countess's guests appear on the scene in pastoral

habit and move toward the seat of state with a prefatory song of compliment. A "genius of the wood" then comes forward and describes the significance of the occasion, after which the piece closes with two more songs of flattery.

The

ARCA'DIA (Gk. 'Apkadla, Arkadia). bounded on the north by Achaia, on the east middle and highest part of the Peloponnesus, by Argolis, on the south by Messenia and Laconia, and on the west by Elis. According to Pausanias, it derived its name from Arcas, the son of Callisto. Next to Laconia, Arcadia was

the largest country in the Peloponnesus. It had an area of 1800 square miles, and was girt round by a circle of mountains, which cut off to a large extent its communication with the rest of the peninsula. Mountains also intersected it in different directions, forming a number of small cantons. The western part of what was anciently Arcadia is wild, bleak, and rugged, and covered with forests; the eastern is more fertile; and in the southeast are two plateaus, in which lay the chief ancient cities. The loftiest peak in Arcadia is Mount Cyllene, in the northeast, 7790 feet. The small rivers are either tributaries of the Alpheus (q.v.), or empty into inland lakes drained by underground channels (katavothra). The chief cities were Tegea (q.v.) and Mantinea (q.v.) in the southeast, and the great city, Megalopolis (q.v.), founded in B.C. 370 by Epaminondas as the capital of the Arcadian Confederacy. Further north were Orchomenus, Pheneus, Clitor, and Psophis. Owing to its isolation, Arcadia remained little affected by the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, and its inhabitants were regarded as belonging to the original population of the peninsula; a belief confirmed by their dialect, which preserves some early forms and shows strong resemblances to the Cyprian. The nature of the country also prevented any lasting union among the inhabitants, and enabled the Spartans

to maintain their supremacy until the battle of Leuctra. The confederation organized by Epaminondas had no real permanency, and until the Roman conquest the country was the scene of civil strife. The inhabitants were brave, hardy, and fond of fighting, so that they were in great demand as mercenaries. Among their shepherds and hunters the chief deities seem to have been Pan, Artemis, and Zeus, who was worshiped with human sacrifices on Mount Lycaon till a comparatively late date. A form of pastoral poetry seems to have developed in Arcadia, which was at first crowded into the background by the Sicilian bucolics of Theocritus; but later revived and influenced the Roman

poets, whence Arcadia has become a synonym for an idyllic pastoral country of peace, innocence, and simplicity.

ARCADIA. The title of various pastoral romances, suggested, doubtless, from the use of the word in Vergil's Eclogues, where it is spoken of as a realm of bucolic content. One of these romances is by Sannazaro, and appeared at the close of the Fifteenth Century; another is by Sir Philip Sidney, and was published in 1590; a third is by Robert Greene, published in 1589; and a fourth by Lope de Vega, in 1598. In 1640 Shirley wrote a dramatization of Sidney's tale.

ARCA'DIUS (c.377-408). The first Emperor of the East (A.D. 395-408). He was born in Spain, and was the son of the Emperor Theodosius, after whose death the Roman Empire was divided into the Eastern and Western. Arcadius lived in Oriental state, and his dominion extended from the Adriatic Sea to the river Tigris, and from Scythia to Ethiopia; but the real rulers over this vast empire were, first, the Gaul Rufinus, and afterwards the eunuch Eutropius, who openly assumed the reins of government and the command of the army, while Arcadius reposed in luxurious indifference. In 399 Eutropius was deposed by another usurper, Gainas, who, in his turn, soon fell a victim to his own ambition. Afterwards Eudoxia, the wife of the Emperor, assumed the supremacy. One really great man adorned this period, the virtuous and eloquent Chrysostom, who was persecuted by Eudoxia, and through her influence exiled in 404, on account of his firm opposition to Arianism, which the Empress herself favored. During the reign of Arcadius his territories suffered by barbarian

incursions, earthquakes, and famine, but nothing

could disturb the indifference of the monarch. He died, unlamented, A.D. 408. See HONORIUS. ARCA'NI DISCIPLINA. See DISCIPLINA ARCANI.

ARCA'NUM, THE GREAT. In the Middle Ages the Latin word arcanum, literally meaning secret, was used of any of the most valued preparations of alchemy (q.v.); but the name great arcanum was especially applied to the highest problems of the science, the discovery of such supposed great secrets of nature as the elixir of life or the philosopher's stone.

ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE L'ETOILE, ärk de trê'ônf' de lâ'twäl' (Fr., triumphal arch of the star). The largest triumphal arch in the world. It stands at the head of the Champs Elysées, Paris, and was begun by Napoleon in 1806, and completed by Louis Philippe in 1836. It was designed by Chalgrin, and is profusely ornamented with reliefs representing the Napo

leonic victories, in commemoration of which it was erected. See ARCH, TRIUMPHAL.

ARC DE TRIOMPHE DU CARROUSEL, ärk de trẻôNf dụ karoozěl (Fr., triumphal arch of the tilting-match). An arch built by Napoleon I. at Paris, in the square inclosed by the Tuileries and the Louvre, in commemoration of his victories during 1805-06. It is a smaller copy of the Arch of Constantine at Rome. See ARCH, TRIUMPHAL.

FRANCISCO

AR'CE, Span. pron., är'thâ, (1822-78). A California pioneer. He removed to Alta California in 1833, and soon afterward became secretary to General José Castro, then In 1846, commanding the Californian forces. while bringing a number of horses, supposed to belong to the Californian Government, from Sonoma to the south, he was attacked (June 6) by a company of Americans, supposedly instigated by Captain John C. Frémont. The "Arce marked the beginning of the Bear-Flag Revolt, affair" attracted widespread attention, and which resulted in the seizure of California by the Americans.

ARʼCESILAʼUS (Gk. 'Apkeσlaos, Arkesilaos) (B.C. 316-241). A Greek philosopher, founder of the Middle Academy. He was born at Pitane, in Eolis; studied philosophy at Athens, first under Theophrastus, the Peripatetic, and afterwards under Crantor, the Academician, and through the latter became acquainted with Polemon and Crates, by whom, as well as by Crantor, he was profoundly influenced in his philosophic views. the head of the Academic school. After the death of Crantor, he became Arcesilaus marks a reaction against the dogmatism of the Stoic school of philosophy, and an intended recurrence to the method and attitude of Plato and Socrates. He denied the Stoic doctrine of a "convincing conception," which he affirmed to be, dictory. He also denied the certainty of intelfrom its very nature, unintelligible and contralectual and sensuous knowledge, and recommended abstinence from all dogmatic judgments. In of probability. Though Arcesilaus confined his practice, he maintained, we must act on grounds activity to teaching by the Socratic method, and wrote nothing, his influence on the future course had clearness of thought, cutting wit, and readiof philosophic thought was far-reaching. tion charmed his opponents as well as his disness of speech; his frank and generous disposiciples. Consult Zeller, Geschichte der griechischen Philosophie (Leipzig, 1893).

He

ARCH (Lat. arcus, anything curved, a bow, vault, arch). A term used in architecture to designate any curved form that spans an opening or recess. It may be decorative, as a floral arch; or constructional, as a stone or brick arch. It may be a detached structure, a memorial or triumphal arch; or it may be a part of a large building. A constructional arch may be a false arch, consisting of horizontal courses of masonry, each projecting over the one below it, the edges being chamfered to give the form of the arch without the carrying function; or it may be a true arch, with a keystone, as is usually the case, and may be of the greatest variety of shapes: a primitive triangle, formed of two slanting stones; a flat arch, with wedge-shaped voussoirs; a segmental arch, or very low arch, used often within walls, as a discharging arch, for strength;

a usual round or one-centred arch; a stilted arch; a usual pointed or two-centred arch; a cusped or lobed arch (trefoil, quatrefoil, cinqfoil); a horseshoe arch; a reverse-curve or ogee arch; a basket-handle arch (both three-centred). The arch is formed of voussoirs; the central one is the keystone, the lower ones are the springers. The inner side of the arch is the intrados, the outer the extrados. See ABUTMENT; ARCHIVOLT; SPANDREL.

History. The supporting power of the arch appears to have been known to most nations of antiquity, but the power was not regarded as artistic. The Egyptians knew the round arch, but relegated it to works of engineering and private architecture; the arch never appears in their temples, tombs, or any other large monuments. In this they held precisely the position held later by the Greeks. The arch in the Assembly Hall at Priene (time of Alexander), recently discovered, is supposed to be the only decorative Greek arch found; the few others are in fortifications, etc. But the Babylonians and Assyrians knew and used various kinds of arches in their palaces, tombs, and temples: the false arch; the pointed and the semicircular arches. All the openings in Assyrian palaces were arched. In ancient Italy, the Pelasgic and Etruscan populations used the arch in the same way for secular and sepulchral buildings; for gates, bridges, passages. Only in temple architecture, borrowed from the Greeks of the historic age, was the architrave supreme. This custom was inherited by the Romans, most of whose secular buildings were arched, while their temples were not. But the Romans of the Early Empire did not invent the arcade—that is, an uninterrupted series of arches supported on columns or piers. This was first introduced at Diocletian's palace in Spalato, and developed in early Christian religious architecture. Etruscans, Romans, and early Christians knew only the semicircular arch. But the Persians and Mohammedans, beginning in the Sixth and Seventh centuries, brought into use a variety of other forms: the pointed, the horseshoe, the ovoid, the stilted arches. These forms later penetrated sporadically into Europe, especially where there were political or commercial relations with the Orient. The pointed arch became, in fact, the favorite Mohammedan form. It was, perhaps, a knowledge of this Oriental usage that suggested to French builders of the time of the First Crusade the use of this form in vaulting; and thus was laid the basis for Gothic construction, though otherwise there cannot be any connection between the pointed style of the East and Gothic architecture. In Europe the round-arched style of the Romanesque Period was succeeded by the more flexible pointed style of Gothic. Gothic architects produced the greatest number of sub-forms and by-forms of the arch, not all of them pointed. Then the Renaissance returned to the round arch. Modern architects have no style to hamper them, and therefore use all kinds.

ARCH, TRIUMPHAL, or MEMORIAL. Usually a free-standing arch, spanning a road; though sometimes city gates and monumental doorways are turned into memorial arches. These arches are erected to commemorate triumphs or successful campaigns, or even great peaceful events, or an entire reign, or even a great family. They appear to have originated with the Romans.

Nearly one hundred and fifty such Roman arches remain wholly or in part, of which about sixty are in North Africa. At Rome they were placed along the Triumphal Way followed by the triumphing general and his army from the Field of Mars to the Capitol. The custom spread from Rome elsewhere. The earliest arches mentioned at Rome are those of Stertinius (B.C. 196) and Scipio Africanus (B.C. 190). Then the Fabian gens erected one to itself (c.120 B.C.). But it was under Augustus that the custom took root everywhere, as is shown in the Roman Forum, at Aosta, Susa, Rimini, Fano, etc. From that time until the fall of the Empire in the Fifth Century such arches followed Roman dominion throughout the civilized world, and they are found in France (Saint Remy, Orange, etc.), Spain (Caparra, Bara), North Africa (Timgad, Tebessa, Thugga, Haïdra), Syria (Palmyra, Gerasa, Baalbek), Asia Minor, etc. The early arches were of stone and without much carving, being mainly arched bases for a group of triumphal statuary. But under the Empire, though still crowned by the triumphal quadriga and other figures in bronze, the arches themselves became of great artistic importance, and often represent the most successful effort of Roman genius at combining architectural and sculptural design. They were then built of marble. The number of openings varied from one to four, according as special arcades were or were not made for foot-passengers, or two main arches provided for vehicles in place of one. Still another favorite form was the Janus arch, or Tetrapylon, a solid cube, with arches at right angles, usually placed at the intersection of avenues, as at Philippopolis, Gerasa, and Rome. Few cities were built under the Empire without one or more of these arches, but only in Italy and South France were they profusely decorated with relief sculptures. The most perfect of all such sculptured arches is that of Trajan, at Benevento (A.D. 114); then come those of Titus (A.D. 80), Septimius Severus (A.D. 203), and Constantine (A.D. 312) at Rome, and that of Tiberius at Orange. The sculptures commemorated events of these emperors' reigns, and the attic contained the dedicatory inscription. One of the slenderest and most elegant is the one erected on the Mole at Ancona, to celebrate the enlargement of this port by Trajan. The Renaissance resurrected the arch after a lapse of a thousand years (Arch of Alfonso at Naples, Fifteenth Century), and it has since the Seventeenth Century steadily increased in popularity in Italy (Arco della Pace, Milan); France (Arc de l'Etoile, Arc du Carrousel); Germany (Brandenburger Thor, Berlin; Siegesthor, Munich), and America (Washington Arch, New York; Memorial Arch, Brooklyn). Consult: Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums (Munich, 1885-88); Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et maines (Paris, 1881-92); Bellori, Veteres Arcus Augustorum (Rome, 1690); and Philippi, Ueber die römischen Triumphalreliefe (Leipzig, 1874).

ro

ARCH, JOSEPH (1826-). An English labor leader. He was born in humble circumstances; was a farm laborer; educated himself, and became a Primitive Methodist preacher. In 1872 he headed the movement for the betterment of the condition of farm laborers in England, and founded and was president of the National Agri