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ARCHEOPTERIS, är'kê-op'tê-ris (Gk. dpXaios, archaios, ancient + TTEрis, pteris, fern). A genus including some of the oldest known fossil ferns, originally described by Dawson in 1863 to include species from the Chemung group of the Upper Devonian. The leaves are bipinnate with obovate inequilateral pinnules; the fertile leaves having oval spore-cases instead of pinnules. Perhaps the largest species is Archæopteris Jacksoni, fine examples of which, attaining a length of five feet, are often found in the flagstone quarries of the upper horizons of the Catskill group in the central portions of the Catskill Mountains of New York. See FERN; CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM; DEVONIAN SYSTEM.

ARCHEOPTERYX, är'ke-op'tê-riks (Gk. dpxaîos, archaios, ancient, primitive+ Tépu, pteryx, wing, bird). The oldest known bird, found fossil in the Jurassic lithographic stone of Solenhofen, Bavaria, where it was discovered in 1861. It was a creature about the size of a crow, bird-like in form, having a rather short, blunt beak, the upper jaw of which was furnished with thirteen teeth, and the lower with three teeth on each side, each planted in a separate socket. Its most extraordinary feature, however, is a lizard-like tail of twenty vertebræ, from each of which springs a pair of well-developed quill feathers. "The vertebræ of the neck and back were biconcave, the sternum seems to have been keeled, and the manus had three free digits. The tibia and fibula do not coalesce, and the former was furnished with a series of feathers (wing-quills) very similar to

ARCHEOPTERYX MACRURA.

(Specimen from Solenhofen, studied by Owen.) those of the tail." These are divisible, as in modern birds, into primaries and secondaries. That it was able to fly is not to be doubted; the form of its feet, also, indicate arboreal habits, and that it scrambled about, as well as made short flights, is suggested by the fact that each finger of the hand, as well as the toes, was armed with a claw. The tail must have impeded rather than assisted flight, and it is interesting to note that in later birds this cumbersome member soon became modified into substantially the present form before the Cretaceous era came to a close. (See BIRDS.) It was first thoroughly studied by Owen (Philosophical Transactions, London, 1863); later information is summarized in Newton, Dictionary of Birds, Article "Fossil Birds" (New York, 1893-96).

ARCHAIC (Gk. ȧpxaïkós, archaikos, old-fashioned, primitive, from apxh, arche, beginning, origin). A term applied to the primitive stage of the art of a good period, especially to Greek

art before Pericles. Archaistic is applied to an imitation of this style; as, when Greek artists under Augustus reproduced Greek sculpture of the Sixth and Fifth centuries.

ARCHAN'GEL, or ARKHANGELSK, ärKän❜gelsk. A government of Russia, between 61° and 71° N. lat. and 28° to 66° E. long., extending along the White Sea and Arctic Ocean from Finland and Norway east to the Ural, and bounded on the south by the governments of Vologda and Olonetz. It occupies an area of 326,500 square miles, including the islands of Nova Zembla and Vaigatch. It is the largest government of the Empire, and occupies the entire north of European Russia. Its greatest length, from west to east, is 990 miles; its greatest width, from north to south, is 132 miles. Four large navigable rivers flow through Archangel; the Petchora for 528 miles, the Onega 132 miles, the northern Dvina 265 miles, and the Mesen 265 miles, all emptying their waters into the White Sea. The northwestern and the northeastern parts are mountainous, reaching a height of more than 4900 feet. The climate of Archangel is very severe in the central part of the government. At its northwestern extremity the climate is perceptibly milder, and the open sea is never frozen. The great wealth of Archangel is in its forests, which cover more than half of its area. Lumbering is therefore the leading industry. The inhabitants are besides engaged in agriculture which, at its best, in the south is but poorly developed, in fishing and hunting along the shores of the Arctic and the White Sea, and in the rearing of deer, which constitutes the almost exclusive occupation of the Samoyeds. The population of the government was 331,200 in 1890, and 347,600 in 1897. Ninety-eight per cent. of the people are Russians. Of the different aboriginal tribes, as the Lopars, Zyrans, Samoyeds, etc., there are not more than 6000 persons. Archangel is the most sparsely populated government of Russia. Consult A. P. Englehardt, A Russian Province of the North (Westminster, 1889).

ARCHANGEL. The capital city of the Russian Government of Archangel, situated in lat. 64° 33' N., and long. 40° 33′ E., on the right bank of the Dvina River, 26 miles above its entrance into the White Sea, and 740 miles northeast of Saint Petersburg (Map: Russia, F 2). It is the largest and most important city in the world situated so near to the Arctic Circle. The city is of ancient origin, and among its most noteworthy buildings is the handsome cathedral finished in the beginning of the Nineteenth Century. It is said to be the handsomest and best-lighted cathedral in Russia. The other buildings of interest are the bazaar or mart, the marine hospital, and the wooden "little house" of Peter the Great. The importance of the city is considerable, since it serves as an outlet for the products of the far northern and western part of Siberia. The chief articles of traffic are fish, skins, furs, timber, wax, iron, tallow, bristles, and caviar. At its annual fair, in September, about 14,000,000 rubles worth of goods change hands. The value of its exports and imports amounts to about 8,000,000 rubles ($4,500,000) annually, and it is visited by some 800 vessels during the months of July to September, the only period of the year when the harbor of Archangel is entirely free from ice. Of the foreign ves

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sels visiting the port the British and Norwegian are the most numerous. Considerable inland shipping is carried on by a large number of smaller vessels navigating the Dvina. The fact that the harbor is ice-bound during the greater part of the year has been the greatest obstacle to the commercial growth of the city, ever since its foundation in 1584 by Czar Feodor. The city was named after the monastery on the Dvina, founded here by the Archbishop of Novgorod in the Twelfth Century with a view to missionary work among the pagan Choods. Pop. 1897, 20,933.

ARCHANGEL (Gk. ȧpx, prefix denoting dignity of rank + ayyeλos, messenger, angel) A term occurring twice in the New Testament, I. Thess. iv. 16 (referring indefinitely to an exalted angelic being), and Jude 9. The idea contained in the term is due to the Old Testament development of the conception of angels, which, in its earliest stage, involved nothing more than the positing of supernatural beings, whose vocation, generally speaking, was to be in varied ways agents of God. Gradually, however, the idea of moral distinctions among these angelic beings appeared, some of them being thought of as doing evil, as when in Gen. vi. 1-4, the 'sons of God' are spoken of as being led into a love for the 'daughters of men,' and some of them being pictured as instigating men to wickedness, as in I. Chron. xxi. 1, where Satan is represented as moving David to number Israel. Finally, among the hosts, in which more or less they had been understood as existing, appeared the idea of ranks and even names, the book of Daniel referring to Gabriel (viii. 16; ix. 21) and to Michael, who is represented as "the great prince who standeth for the children of the people" (xii. 1). Both of these developed ideas-moral distinctions and ranks and names-are carried over into the New Testament writings, where use is frequently made of them. The first place in these ranks is evidently intended to be referred to in our term. See ANGEL.

ARCHANGEL, NEW. See SITKA.
ARCHANGELICA, ärk'ăn-jel'í-kȧ.

ANGELICA.

See

ARCHAS, är'kas. A character in Fletcher's

The Loyal Subject; a much too "loyal subject" of the unworthy and thankless monarch in that play.

ARCHBISHOP, ärch'bish'up (Gk. ȧpx-, archi-, chief + πloкоTоs, episkopos, overseer). The title given to a metropolitan bishop who superintends the conduct of the suffragan bishops in his province, and also exercises episcopal authority in his own diocese. The archbishop was probably originally the bishop of the chief town. The office appears as early as the Fourth Century. In the Oriental Church the archbishops are still called 'metropolitans,' from the circumstance mentioned. In the African Church, on the other hand, the term used was 'primus.' The great archbishoprics of the early Church were those of Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Rome. Since the Sixth Century the Archbishop of Rome has borne the name of Pope (papa). There is an official letter by Justinian, addressed to "John, Archbishop of Rome and Patriarch," and several ecclesiastical constitutions are addressed to "Epiphanius,

Archbishop of Constantinople and Patriarch." The Synod of 'Antioch, in 341, assigned to the archbishop the superintendence over all the bishoprics and a precedence in rank over all the bishops of the Church, who, on important matters, were bound to consult him and be guided by his advice. By degrees there arose, out of this superiority of rank, privileges which at length assumed the character of positive jurisdiction in ecclesiastical matters. Many of these rights passed to the patriarchs (q.v.) toward the end of the Fourth and during the Fifth Century, and still more to the Pope in the Ninth. The archbishops still retained jurisdiction, in the which were not criminal, and over those who first instance, over their suffragans in matters were subject to them they acted as a court of appeal. They possessed also the right of calling together, and presiding in, the provincial synods; the bishops of the metropolitan see; the power the superintendence and power of visitation over of enforcing the laws of the Church; the dispensation of indulgences, and the like. The archbishops further enjoyed the honor of having the cross carried before them in their own archiepiscopate, even in presence of the Pope himself, and of wearing the pallium.

In the Established Church of England there are two archbishops, both appointed by the sovereign, of whom the one has his seat at Canterbury, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kent; the other at York, the capital of Northumbria. But though, as ruling over a province in place of a single diocese, both have enjoyed the rank of metropolitans from the first, the Archbishop of Canterbury has all along enjoyed, not merely precedence as the successor of Augustine and the senior archbishop, but as possessing a preeminent and universal authority over the whole kingdom. This preeminence is marked in the titles which they respectively assume the Archbishop of Canterbury being styled the Primate of All England (metropolitanus et primus totius Anglia), while the Archbishop of York is simply called Primate of England (primus et metropolitanus Anglia). It is also indicated by the places which they occupy in processionsthe Archbishop of Canterbury, who has precedence of all the nobility, not only preceding the Archbishop of York, but the Lord Chancellor being interposed between them. Previous to the creation of an archbishopric in Ireland the authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury extended to that island. The amount of control which belongs to an archbishop over the bishops of his province is not very accurately defined; but if any bishop introduces irregularities into his diocese, or is guilty of immorality, the archbishop may call him to account and even deprive him. In 1822, the Archbishop of Armagh, who is Primate of All Ireland, deposed the Bishop of Clogher on the latter ground. To the Archbishop of Canterbury belongs the honor of placing the crown on the sovereign's head at his coronation; and the Archbishop of York claims the like privilege in the case of the Queen-Consort, whose perpetual chaplain he is. The province of the Archbishop of York consists of the six northern counties, with Cheshire and Nottinghamshire. The rest of England and Wales form the province of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The dioceses of the two archbishops-that is to say, the districts in which they exercise ordinary episcopal functions

-were remodeled by 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 77. The diocese of Canterbury comprises Kent, except the city and deanery of Rochester, and some parishes transferred by this act; a number of parishes in Sussex called 'peculiar'; with small districts in other dioceses, particularly London. The diocese of the Archbishop of York embraces the county of York, except that portion of it now included in the dioceses of Ripon and Manchester; the whole county of Nottingham, and some other detached districts. In Ireland there are two Protestant archbishops, elected by their fellowbishops out of their number, and four Roman Catholic. Of the former, the Archbishop of Armagh is Primate of All Ireland; the Archbishop of Dublin being Primate of Ireland. They for merly sat alternately in the House of Lords; the three bishops who, along with them, represented the Church of Ireland, being chosen by rotation. The Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales has one archbishop; in Scotland two archbishops, while the Episcopal Church in that country has no archbishop, but a primus. An English archbishop writes himself, "by divine providence"; a bishop being, "by divine permission"; and an archbishop has the title of "Grace," and "Most Reverend Father in God," while a bishop is styled "Lord," and "Right Reverend Father in God." The archbishop is entitled to present to all ecclesiastical livings in the disposal of diocesan bishops, if not filled within six months; and every bishop, whether created or translated, was formerly bound to make a legal conveyance to the archbishop of the next avoidance of one such dignity or benefice belonging to his see as the archbishop should choose.

The only archbishops in the United States are those of the Roman Catholic Church, now fourteen in number. Up to 1789 the ecclesiastical government of that Church in this country continued under the vicar apostolic of the London district, the local superior at that time being Father John Carroll, of Baltimore. In 1789 Baltimore was erected into an episcopal see, and Father Carroll became bishop. In 1808, after New Orleans, New York, and Boston had been erected into sees, Baltimore was raised to metropolitan rank, Father Carroll becoming the first archbishop, as he had been the first bishop, in this country. The dates of the establishments of other archiepiscopal sees in this country are as follows the first date being that of the foundation of the see, and the second of its elevation to a metropolis: Oregon City, 1846, 1846; Saint Louis, 1826, 1847; New Orleans, 1793, 1850; New York, 1808, 1850; Cincinnati, 1821, 1850; Dubuque, 1837, 1893; San Francisco, 1853, 1853; Milwaukee, 1844, 1875; Boston, 1808, 1875; Philadelphia, 1808, 1875; Santa Fé, 1850, 1875; Chicago, 1844, 1880; Saint Paul, 1850, 1888.

ARCHDALE, ärch'dâl, JOHN. A colonial governor of North Carolina, born in England. He came to New England, as the agent for Governor Gorges, of Maine, in 1664; was a commissioner for Gorges (1687-88); and was Governor of North Carolina, of which he was also a 'proprietary.' He reorganized the administration of the colony, conciliated the Indians, and introduced the culture of rice. He published A New Description of the Fertile and Pleasant Province of Carolina, with a Brief Account of Its Discovery, Settling, and Government up to This Time (London, 1707).

ARCHDEACON, ärch'de'kun (Gk.ȧpxı-, archi-, chief diákovos, diakonos, servant, minister of the Church). An ecclesiastical dignitary whose jurisdiction is immediately subordinate to that of the bishop. The archdeacon originally was simply the chief of the deacons, who were the attendants and assistants of the bishop in Church affairs. His duties consisted in attending the bishop at the altar and at ordinations, assisting him in managing the revenues of the Church and directing the deacons in their duties. From being thus mere assistants; archdeacons in the Fifth Century began to share the bishop's powers, and step by step attained to the authority they now enjoy, which from the Ninth Century became in many respects distinct from that of the bishop. Several synods protested against the innovation, but it was continued in the Eleventh and Twelfth centuries, when the archdeacons were recognized as the most influential of prelates. In the Thirteenth Century, their powers were limited by the establishment of episcopal courts. Their dignity and influence is now very much reduced in the Roman Catholic Church, and many of their former functions are now exercised by vicargenerals.

There are now eighty-three archdeaconries in the Established Church of England. No person can be appointed to this office who has not been six years a priest. His duties include visitation of the parishes, holding synods, ordering repairs of churches, and in other ways being, as the canon law calls him, 'the bishop's eye.' He is addressed as 'Venerable.' In the American Protestant Episcopal Church the archdeacon exercises analogous functions, but the office is found in only thirty-nine out of the seventy-six dioceses, and the number in the dioceses where it has been introduced varies from one to six. The office is found in all branches of the Church of England and also in the Lutheran Church.

ARCHDUKE, ärch'dük' (arch + duke, from Gk. ȧpxi- archi-, chief + Lat. dux, leader). Archduke and archduchess are titles now taken by all the princes and princesses of the house of Austria. The title seems to have originated about the middle of the Twelfth Century, though it came into use only gradually. Rudolph IV. of Austria called himself Palatinus Archidux. The name was formally conferred on the Hapsburgs by Frederick III. in 1453. Various noble houses, especially that of Bavaria, disputed the title with the Hapsburgs, but since Rudolph II., German Emperor from 1576 to 1612, their precedence has been established.

He

ARCHEDEMUS, är’ké-dē’mūs (Gk. 'Apxédnuos, Archedēmos), called GLAMON (the 'bleareyed'). A demagogue and popular speaker in Athens at the end of the Fifth Century and the beginning of the Fourth Century B.C. is said to have been a foreigner who worked his way by fraud into the Athenian franchise, was poor, and was generally disliked by reason of his restless activity and meddlesomeness. By bringing an accusation against Erasinides, he took the first steps toward the impeachment of the Athenian generals who took part in the battle of Arginusæ, B.C. 406.

ARCHEGONIUM, är'kê-gō'ni-um (Gk. ȧpXeyovos, archegonos, first of a race, primal). The peculiar female organ of mosses, ferns, coni

fers, etc., which together are often spoken of as Archegoniates. It is a flask-shaped organ, consisting of a neck more or less elongated and a venter more or less bulbous. A single egg occupies the venter, and in the process of fertilization the sperm enters by the open neck of the archegonium and comes in contact with the egg. Among the mosses the archegonium is a free and often stalked organ. Among the liverworts the archegonia are variously disposed on the thallus-body, while in mosses they are borne in a cluster at the apex of the leafy shoot or of its branches, the terminal rosette of more or less modified leaves forming what is often called a 'moss flower.' Among the ferns the archegonia are usually borne upon the under side of the inconspicuous sexual plant (prothallium), the venters being imbedded in the tissue and the necks more or less projecting.. In the water ferns, quillworts, and little club-mosses, the female plant is developed as a tissue within the spore, whose heavy wall breaks or cracks at a certain place, and in the exposed part of the female plant the archegonia are developer. Among the conifers the spore, with its contained female plant, is retained within the ovule, and hence the archegonia are not exposed, but lie imbedded in the superficial part of the female plant (endosperm), toward the micropyle (the passageway left by the integument). Among the conifers the male cells are brought to the archegonium by growing pollen-tubes. The pollengrain, containing the male cells, rests at the base of the micropyle, upon the apex of the nucellus (central part of the ovule). The tube penetrates the tissue of the nucellus and reaches the embryo-sac (megaspore), just within which are the archegonium necks. It then pierces the sac-wall, enters and crushes the neck, and discharges its male cells into the egg.

Among the flowering plants no archegonia are developed, the embryo-sac containing a free egg, along with other free cells of a much-reduced female plant.

a

ARCHEGONIA.

b

(a) of a moss, (b) of a fern, and (c) of a liverwort, showing in each case the neck and the venter containing the egg.

The development of an archegonium and its preparation for fertilization are matters of great morphological interest. It begins as a single superficial cell of the sexual plant. By repeated cell divisions the layer of cells constituting the neck and venter is formed, and this surrounds a single row of axial cells. The cells of this row (variable in number) which lie within the neck are called the "neck canal cells," while the lowest cell of the row, the one within the venter, forms the egg. When the archegonium is nearly mature the row of neck canal cells breaks down and leaves an open neck; and usually just before fertilization the cell in the venter cuts off a small cell toward the neck called the "ventral canal cell," which rapidly disorganizes and leaves the egg free and alone in the venter, ready for the approach of the sperms through the neck.

One of the interesting facts in connection with archegonia is that the apical neck cells secrete a substance which attracts the sperms toward them. For example, this substance is not the same in mosses and ferns, so that even if archegonia of the two groups are close together the moss sperms and the fern sperms will be attracted only to their own archegonia.

ARCHEGOSAURUS, är'kê-gô-saʼrūs.

STEGOCEPHALIA.

See

ARCHELAUS, är'kê-la'us (Gk. 'Apxéλaos, Archelaos).—(1) One of the Heraclide who, when driven by his brothers from his native land, fled to Macedonia and founded the town of Ega. He was the mythical founder of the royal house of Macedonia.-(2) A Greek philosopher and pupil of Anaxagoras. He was born at Athens, and was the son of Apollodorus or Myson. The outlines of his system were those of his teacher, but for the details of his cosmology he went back to the ideas of the earlier Ionic physicists. He admitted a primitive matter, consisting of infinite particles similar in nature to the bodies formed from them. He also admitted a ruling Mind. Matter and mind he held to be mingled, and identified the primitive matter with air. Out of this air, thus endowed with mind, there arose, by processes of thickening and thinning, cold and heat, or water and fire-the former passive, the latter active. From the action of fire and water were formed the atmosphere and the mud out of which the heavenly bodies were developed. Living organized beings, at first of low type, sprang from the mud, and gradually the races of animals were formed. Man he held to be superior to other beings, by reason of his artistic and moral powers.-(3) King of Macedonia, natural son of Perdiccas II. He came to the throne in B.C. 413, after murdering the rightful heir. Archelaus improved the internal condition of his kingdom, introduced changes in the currency, improved the army, and showed himself a warm patron of art and literature. Euripides, Zeuxis, and other men of eminence visited his court, and only Socrates refused an invitation to go thither. The palace of Archelaus was adorned with magnificent paintings by Zeuxis. Archelaus was either murdered or accidentally slain by his favorite, Cratæus or Crateras, in B.C. 399.-(4) A distinguished general of Mithridates. In the winter of B.C. 88-87 he was sent to Greece with a large fleet and army to oppose the Romans in that quarter. On the

way he seized the Cyclades, together with Delos, and, by granting the latter island to Athens, won over that city to the side of Mithridates. On his appearance in Greece, the Achæans, the Laconians, and the Baotians at once flocked to his standard. A three days' battle was fought in the neighborhood of Thespia, with indecisive result, but Archelaus was forced to fall back upon Athens and Piræus. In the summer of B.C. 87, Sulla landed in Greece and proceeded against Archelaus. After long and hard fighting Athens and Piræus were taken, and Archelaus retreated to Chalcis. Here he was joined by reinforcements from Mithridates, and in March, B.C. 86, met with a crushing defeat at Charonea. Of 120,000 men that Archelaus led into battle, barely 10,000 reassembled at Chalcis. In the meantime Mithridates sent into Greece a further force of 80,000 men under Dorylaus. With this force Archelaus faced the enemy at Orchomenus in B.C. 85. His army was almost entirely destroyed, but Archelaus himself, after hiding for several days in a swamp, finally escaped to Chalcis. Peace followed, but Archelaus, though innocent, awakened, by his conduct in the negotiations, the suspicions of Mithridates, and was as a result driven to side with the Romans in the second and third Mithridatic wars.-(5) Son of the preceding. He married Berenice, daughter of King Ptolemæus Auletes, in B.C. 56, and ruled over Egypt for the short space of six months during the banishment of Ptolemæus. The usurper lost his life in a battle against Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria.-(6) Grandson of the preceding. He obtained from Marcus Antonius the Province of Cappadocia, which he retained during the reign of Augustus. Tiberius accused him of political innovations and condemned him to death; but he was already old and broken, and he died at Rome soon after his trial, in A.D. 17.— (7) A Greek sculptor, celebrated for his bas-relief representing the 'Apotheosis of Homer,' which was found in the Seventeenth Century on the Via Appia, near Bovillæ. The relief appears to be the votive offering of a poet made for a victory won at a poetic contest. Its time is placed all the way from B.C. 150 to the beginning of the first century A.D. The relief was purchased in 1819 for the British Museum.(8) Son of Herod, tyrant of Judæa. He succeeded his father in B.C. 4, and maintained his position against an insurrection raised by the Pharisees. His heirship to the throne being disputed by his brother Antipas, Archelaus went to Rome, where his authority was confirmed by Augustus, who made him Ethnarch of Judæa, Samaria, and Idumæa. After a reign of nine years he was deposed by Augustus, on account of his cruel tyranny, and banished to Vienna in Gaul, where he died. His territories were added to the Roman Province of Syria.

ARCHENHOLZ, är'кěn-hōlts, JOHANN WILHELM, Baron von (1743-1812). A German historian. After service in the army, he gained his discharge at the close of the Seven Years' War, and passed several years in travel, visiting almost all the principal cities of Europe, and supporting himself by authorship. He wrote Geschichte des siebenjährigen Krieges (History of the Seven Years' War) (two volumes, 1793), which, when compared with the generally dry style of his German contemporaries, deserves praise on account of its narrative interest. He

also wrote Annalen der britischen Geschichte (Annals of British History) (twenty volumes, 1789-98), and biographies of Queen Elizabeth of England and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden.

ARCH'ER, BELLE (1860-1900). An American actress, named Arabella S. Mingle, but known as Miss Archer after her marriage in 1880 to Herbert Archer, from whom she was divorced in 1889. She was born at Easton, Pa., and made her début at Washington, D. C., with William Florence in The Mighty Dollar. Afterward she appeared in Pinafore, Hazel Kirke, etc., and for some time played with E. H. Sothern, as Rose in Lord Chumley (1888), and in other pieces. She also supported Alexander Salvini, and in Daly's company took the part of Maid Marian in the later productions of Tennyson's Foresters. In 1894, after having left the stage for a time, she resumed her career as a star, and afterward was for a while leading woman with Sol Smith Russell.

ARCHER, BRANCH T. (1790-1856). A Texas patriot. He was born in Virginia, where in early life he practiced medicine. In 1831 he went to Texas, took part in the Revolution, and in 1835 presided over the 'consultation' called by the American settlers to consider the subject of independence. During the same year he was one of the three commissioners sent to Washington to solicit aid from the United States. In 1836 he was speaker of the Texas House of Representatives, and from 1839-42 was secretary of war for the new Republic.

ARCHER, FREDERIC (1838-1901). An American organist, born at Oxford, England. He studied music in London and Leipzig, and held musical positions in England and Scotland until 1880, when he was appointed organist of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. Afterward he became conductor of the Boston (Mass.) Oratorio Society, director of Carnegie Music Hall, Pittsburgh, Pa., and in 1899 organist of the Church of the Ascension, Pittsburg. He founded, in 1885, the Keynote, which for a time he edited. He published, besides numerous compositions for the organ, a treatise entitled The Organ and The College Organist.

ARCHER, JOHN (1741-1810). He was born in Maryland and graduated at Princeton in 1760, the first man in the United States to receive the degree of doctor of medicine, that degree coming to him when he graduated at the Philadelphia Medical College in 1768. He was an officer in the army of the Revolution, a member of the Maryland General Assembly, and a representative in Congress from that State for three terms, 1801-07.

ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856-). An English dramatic critic, born at Perth, Scotland. He received the degree of M.A. at Edinburgh University in 1876, and was on the staff of the Edinburgh Evening News from 1875 to 1878. He was dramatic critic of the London Figaro from 1879 to 1881; was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1883, and succeeded Dutton Cook as dramatic critic of the London World in 1884-a position which he still held in 1902. Among his works pertaining to the English drama are: English Dramatists of To-day (1882); Henry Irving, a study (1883); About the Theatre (1886); Study in the Psychology of Acting (1886); W. C. Macready, a biography

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