to the immigration of the Malays to the Philippines. A group of people consisting of a family, with relatives and slaves, traveled from island to island in a "balangay."

The number of houses in the barangays was sometimes even less than thirty, and again as many as one hundred, while as observed by Salcedo, in Ilocos the number of inhabitants reached as high as seven thousand. A multitude of these communities would be found on every island, with a number of them clustering together for mutual protection.

The relations between these barangays were naturally restricted, and dealt primarily with war or questions of marriage. There is, however, evidence that barangays were grouped together in tiny confederations. There are even those who claim that there must have been a loose confederation of different islands. Rizal appends this note in Morga's history of the Philippines: "This fundamental agreement of laws, and this general uniformity, prove that the mutual relations of the islands were widespread, and the bonds of friendship more frequent than were wars and quarrels. There may have existed a confederation, since we know from the first Spaniards that the chief of Manila was commander-inchief of the Sultan of Borneo. In addition, documents of the twelfth century that exist testify to the same thing."1 14. Morga's Description of the Native Government. It is necessary to rely chiefly upon the rather uncertain information given by the Spanish writers of early Philippine state organization. Of these, Antonio de Morga, a high royal official in the government service for a number of years around about the year 1600, is admittedly the most reliable chronicler of the conditions existing in those early days. In

1 Rizal's edition of Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Events of the Philippines), 1609, XVI Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, page 21.

Rizal's edition of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Events of the Philippine Islands) it is said that:

"There were no kings or lords throughout these islands who ruled over them as in the manner of our kingdoms and provinces; but in every island, and in each province of it, many chiefs were recognized by the natives themselves. Some were more powerful than others, and each one has

his followers and subjects, by districts and families; and these obeyed and respected the chief. Some chiefs had friendship and communication with others, and at times wars and quarrels.

"These principalities and lordships were inherited in the male line and by succession of father and son and their descendants. If these were lacking, then their brothers and collateral relatives succeeded. Their duty was to rule and

govern their subjects and followers, and to assist them in their interests and necessities. What the chiefs received from their followers was to be held by them in great veneration and respect; and they were served in their wars and voyages and in their tilling, sowing, fishing, and the building of their houses. To these duties the natives attended very promptly whenever summoned by their chief. They also paid the chiefs tribute (which they called buiz), in varying quantities, in the crops that they gathered. The descendants of such chiefs, and their relatives, even though they did not inherit the lordship, were held in the same respect and consideration. Such were all regarded as nobles, and as persons exempt from the services rendered by the others, or the plebeians, who were called timaguas (timaw'a, Rizal). The same right of nobility and chieftainship was preserved for the women, just as for the men. When any of these chiefs was more courageous than others in war and upon other occasions, such a one obtained more followers and men; and the others were under his leadership, even if they were chiefs. These latter retained to themselves the lordship and particular government of their own following, which is called barangay among them. They had datos and other special leaders (mandadores) who attended to the interests of the barangay.

"The superiority of these chiefs over those of their barangay was so great that they held the latter as subjects; they treated these well or ill, and disposed of their persons, their children, and their possessions, at will, without any resistance, or rendering of account to anyone. For very slight annoyances and for slight occasions, they were wont to kill and wound them, and to enslave them. It has happened that the chiefs have made perpetual slaves of persons who have gone by them, while bathing in the river, or who have raised their

eyes to look at them less respectfully, and for other similar causes." 1

15. Social Classes. Society was divided into nobles, freemen, and slaves.

The nobles were called "datu" (dato) or “raga" (raja) meaning "chief," or "monarch." These titles were acquired either by inheritance or by individual valor, wealth, or energy. These chiefs had great power; they exercised despotic authority; and they were treated with the utmost respect and reverence. "The subject who committed any offense against them, or spoke but a word to their wives and children, was severely punished." 2 The chiefs were the captains in the wars, the lawgivers, and the judges, and had control over land, fishing, and trade. In them were united all the usual forces of government.

The freemen were called "timawa" (in Visayan) or "maharlika" (in Tagalog), meaning "plebeian" or common people. They were the descendants and relatives of the nobles who did not inherit the rank, together with the emancipated slaves and their descendants. They paid no tax or tribute to the chief, but had to accompany him in war at their own expense.

The slaves, among the Visayans, were of three classes: the "ayuey," the "tumarampuk," and the "tumataban." Among the Tagalogs, there were two classes: the "alipingnamamahay" and the "aliping-saguiguilir." These slaves, and usually their families according to their class, had to work a varying proportion of time for their masters. The usual sale price was one or two taels of gold (six or twelve

1 Rizal's edition of Antonio de Morga, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Events . of the Philippines) 1609, XVI, Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, pages 119-121.

2 Two Relations by Juan de Plasencia, 1589, VII, Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, page 173.

pesos); the "aliping-namamahay" (commoners) could not be sold.

16. The Native Laws. The pre-Spanish Filipinos had both written and unwritten laws. They were made and promulgated by the chiefs after consultation with their elders, and were "observed with so great exactness that it was not considered possible to break them in any circumstance." The laws covered many of the subjects which are common in modern times. To indicate only a few of the most striking points in the laws. "One was the respect of parents and elders, carried to so great a degree that not even the name of one's father could pass the lips, in the same way as the Hebrews regarded the name of God." 2 Even after reaching manhood and even after marriage, the son was under a strict obligation to obey his father and mother. The people were accustomed to adoption. Marriage had reached the stage of mutual consent. Marriage ceremonies approaching the religious were more or less elaborate, according to rank. Husband and wife were equal socially and in control of their property. Property was acquired principally by occupation, but also by gift, purchase, and succession. Wills were sometimes made. Contracts were strictly fulfilled. The Chinese writer Wang Ta-yuan in a book of 1349 says: "The natives and the traders having agreed on prices, they let the former carry off the goods and later on they bring the amount of native products agreed upon. The traders trust them, for they never fail to keep their bargains.' In fact, non-per

"3

1 Francisco Colin, Native Races and Their Customs, 1663, XL, Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, page 77.

2 Francisco Colin, Native Races and Their Customs, 1663, XL, Blair and Robertson, The Philippine Islands, page 84.

3 Craig's edition of an "Unpublished translation, by Hon. W. W. Rockhill, of a Chinese book of 1349, by Wang Ta-yuan, Description of the Barbarians of the Isles (Tao-i-chih-lio).”