increasing number of Filipino youths were sent to Europe for their education. In Spain they organized clubs, and in different periodicals of which the fortnightly review, La Solidaridad of Madrid, edited by Lopez Jaena, Marcelo H. Del Pilar, and others, was the most noted, advocated progressive reforms for the Philippines. Liberal democratic ideas, crude, to be sure, in comparison with the momentous revolutions then shaking the world, were disseminated by these returning scholars or by radically inclined Spaniards. The inspiring works of Rizal, circulating secretly, gave outward expression to suppressed desires. La Liga Filipina, whose aim according to its founder, Rizal, was "to promote coöperation, to promote Filipino development, social and economical," and the Katipunan, with secessionist ends, fomented nationalism. Yet, with all their advance in wealth and thought, there came to the Filipinos little additional participation in the government of their country. While Cuba and Porto Rico were early granted the Electoral Law of 1890, and as late as November 25, 1897, were granted a constitution establishing autonomy and representation in the Spanish Cortes, the Philippines retained its status of a colony with a government that was autocratic and despotic.

From the extension of ideas and ideals, from the stubborn opposition of Spanish officialdom to change, from the intercourse of Filipino with Filipino, and finally from the martyrdom of Rizal, there burst a Philippine nationality which was finally led to espouse the cause of revolution.

37. Causes of the Revolution of 1896. Dr. Rizal, under the title of The Philippines, A Century Hence, described the reforms asked from Spain in the following language:

"The Philippines, then, will remain under Spanish domination, but with more law and greater liberty, or they will declare themselves independent, after steeping

The

themselves and the mother country in blood. minister, then, who wants his reforms to be reforms, must begin by declaring the press in the Philippines free and by instituting Filipino delegates. We say the same about the Filipino representatives.

"These are the two fundamental reforms, which, properly interpreted and applied, will dissipate all clouds, assure affection toward Spain, and make all succeeding reforms fruitful. These are the reforms sine quibus non.

"Offices and trusts should be awarded by competition, publishing the work and the judgment thereon, so that there may be stimulus and that discontent may not be bred. Then, if the native does not shake off his indolence he can not complain when he sees all the offices filled by Castilas.

"Therefore, we repeat, and we will ever repeat, while there is time, that it is better to keep pace with the desires of a people than to give way before them; the former begets sympathy and love, the latter contempt and anger. Since it is necessary to grant six million Filipinos their rights, so that they may be in fact Spaniards, let the government grant these rights freely and spontaneously, without damaging reservations, without irritating mistrust.”1

The causes of the revolutions against Spain may be summarized as follows:

(1) A revolt against Spain's bad government; (2) denial of freedom of speech and press; (3) desire for Filipino representation; (4) prohibition of certain governmental proceedings by which a man was condemned without being heard, and the domicile and correspondence violated on

1 Rizal, The Philippines, A Century Hence, pages 62, et seq.

mere secret denunciations; (5) agitation for the secularization of parishes; (6) political and civil equality for Filipinos and Spaniards; (7) desire for promulgation of the Spanish Constitution in the Philippines; and (8) the martyrdom of Burgos, Gómez, and Zamora, and later of Rizal.

38. Desire for Independence. When the revolution of 1896 was started, there was no apparent intention to set up an independent government. What was wanted was the institution of the much-desired reforms. Rizal, however, intimated, as we have seen, that unless those reforms were made, the Philippines might want to be independent. There were probably people who, as early as 1890, had cherished the idea of independence, although they could not advocate it openly.

The first authoritative statement on independence was made by General Emilio Aguinaldo on October 31, 1896, when he issued a manifesto entitled, "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity." In another manifesto of the following year, he said, "We aspire to the glory of obtaining the liberty, independence, and honor of the country."

On November 1, 1897, the leaders of the revolution met at Biac-na-bato as a Constituent Assembly and unanimously adopted a provisional constitution of the Philippine Republic. The constitution contained thirty-two articles and was modeled after a revolutionary constitution of Cuba. It was to be enforced for two years only, after which time an assembly of representatives was to be convened. This program was not followed because of the signature of the pact of Biacna-bato.

39. The Pact of Biac-na-bato. - The pact of Biac-na-bato was an agreement entered into by the Spanish GovernorGeneral and General Aguinaldo to end the revolution. It

was negotiated by Pedro A. Paterno and signed on December 14, 1897. As stated by General Aguinaldo, the terms of the agreement were as follows:

"1. That I would, and any of my associates who desired to go with me, be free to live in any foreign country. Having fixed upon Hongkong as my place of residence, it was agreed that payment of the indemnity of $800,000 (Mexican) should be made in three installments; namely $400,000 when all the arms in Biac-nabato were delivered to the Spanish authorities; $200,000 when the arms surrendered amounted to eight hundred stands; the final payment to be made when one thousand stands of arms shall have been handed over to the authorities and the Te Deum sung in the Cathedral in Manila as thanksgiving for the restoration of peace. The latter part of February was fixed as the limit of time wherein the surrender of arms should be completed.

"2. The whole of the money was to be paid to me personally, leaving the disposal of the money to my discretion and knowledge of the understanding with my associates and other insurgents.

"3. Prior to the remainder of the insurgent forces evacuating Biac-na-bato Captain-General Primo de Rivera should send to Biac-na-bato two generals of the Spanish army to be held as hostages by my associates who remained there until I and a few of my compatriots arrived in Hongkong and the first installment of the money payment (namely, $400,000) was paid to me.

“4. It was also agreed that the religious corporation in the Philippines be expelled and an autonomous system of government, political and administrative, be established, though by special request of General Primo

de Rivera, these conditions were not insisted on in the drawing up of the treaty, the general contending that such concession would subject the Spanish Government to severe criticism and even ridicule.'

40. Renewal of the Revolution. - The Philippine revolutionists fulfilled their part of the treaty of Biac-na-bato and they were expecting the Spanish Government to perform its part. The Spanish officials failed to do this. The remaining portion of the indemnity was never paid, and the promised reforms were not established. There were consequently fresh grievances against Spain, and even while General Aguinaldo and his companions were in exile, new outbursts were reported in the Philippines.

It was at this time that the Spanish-American war broke out. Admiral Dewey, in the expectation of the declaration of war, was in Hongkong, and acting under orders from Washington, immediately proceeded to Manila to destroy the Spanish fleet. He had heard of General Aguinaldo and had sent for him, but the general was then at Singapore. When he came to Hongkong, Admiral Dewey had already left for the Philippines. The Filipino general then followed him to the Philippines on board an American transport, and he received encouragement from Admiral Dewey to continue the struggle against Spain.

This

General Aguinaldo had brought with him to the Philippines a proposed constitution drafted by Mariano Ponce. constitution provided for an assembly of representatives, created executive departments, and contained a declaration of rights which embodied the essential liberties of man. It was modeled after Spanish constitutions.

1 Aguinaldo, True Review of the Philippine Revolution. See Senate Document 62, 55th Cong., 3d Sess., pages 230, 337, 431. Primo de Rivera and other Spanish authorities have denied that any promises as to reforms in the government were made.