ferent groups of bones-the occipital, with its intercalary bone, the squama; the basisphenoid, with its intercalary bone, the Parietals; the presphenoid, with intercalary bones, the frontals; and the ethmoid, together with its outgrowths, the spongy bones and the cribriform plate-exhibit in their successive order from behind forwards, a greater and greater deviation from the plan according to which ordinary vertebræ are developed, so that the occipital bone is most like a vertebra, while the ethmoid is least like one. (11.) Among the bones of the face, the premaxillæ, the nasal bones, and the vomer are developed altogether independently of the investing mass of the notochord; and they never coalesce with parts of the skeleton, which are immediately derived from the latter. On this account alone they cannot be regarded as vertebræ, or parts of vertebræ. Furthermore, they at no time inclose, or help to inclose, a segment of the central nervous system. The nasal bones and the vomer are, properly speaking, 'splint-bones' (Belegungs-knochen) for the ethmoid, such as occur in the vertebræ of no animal; and the premaxillæ are applied, although in a different plane, to the one end of the vertebral column, just as, in Fishes, the median rays of the anal fin are applied to the other end of it. Furthermore, the palatine bones are developed, together with the pterygoids, in lateral processes or rays which have grown out from the middle part of the base of the brain-capsule; and which, as regards their original form, disposition and connexions, resemble the ribs, and may be regarded as a pair of ribs united with the brain case. In Mammalia the two mallei are developed in these two rays, and perhaps the quadrate bones of many other Vertebrata in a part of them; around them, however, is developed, in animals provided with an osseous skeleton, a coating of bony plates, which becomes metamorphosed into the lower jaw. At the outer side of those parts, moreover, in which the pterygoid and palatine bones arise, or, in other words, along side the processes of the 'rays,' a substance arises, whence the upper maxilla and the malar bone are developed. The upper maxilla and malar bone, therefore, might be regarded, like the lower maxilla, as splint bones or rib-like bones (which, however, do not occur in connexion with true ribs), but not as parts of the * The study of the development of the skull necessitates the assumption that sturgeons, sharks, and rays have no premaxilla, aud that their skulls end anteriorly with the Ethmoid cartilage. vertebra itself.* The lachrymal bone, lastly, only fills up a gap between other bones of the face, and therefore, if analogies must be discovered, can only be regarded as an intercalary bone. (12.) The auditory capsules and the petrosal bones, which are developed out of them in many animals, may, in respect of their place and origin, be most fittingly compared with those intercalary bones which occur in sharks and sturgeons, between the arches of the vertebræ; but, in respect of their form, take a different course from these. And since those intercalary pieces can hardly be considered to be parts of vertebræ, the auditory capsules cannot be regarded as such. XXII. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES OF LONDON DURING THE MONTHS OF NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER, 1863. ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, (4, St. Martin's Place). MR. J. CRAWFURD read a paper, "On the Commixture of the Races of Man as affecting the Progress of Civilization in Eastern Asia, &c." In continuation of former papers on the same subject, the author began with the Mongolian race, including under this name the cognate Manchoons, the present masters of China. Notwithstanding its wide-spread conquests, the Mongolian race had never given rise to a clearly mixed race, although there was no doubt of the existence of Hunic blood in Italy, and of Mongol blood in Persia. No people would be solicitous for a union with so ill-favoured a race; and, indeed, there had been little opportunity, since to the west, the Mongolian conquests had been little better than ephemeral plundering incursions. These shepherds had invaded Italy and Persia, but left no more trace on the mass of those populations than the Africans of Hannibal on the first, or the Greeks of Alexander on the last. With the exception of a short interval, they had ruled the nearly-allied Chinese; but, instead of modifying them, they had become, in great measure, Chinese. Between India and China, within the tropics, In the Chelonia and in some few Mammalia bony elements occur, which cover the ribs, and in the first mentioned animals even become united with the ribs, but they are developed in the integument, and belong to the integumentary skeleton, and not to the nervous skeleton, so that they need not be considered here. there existed a peculiar race of man of brown complexion, and consisting of several nations, speaking distinct monosyllabic tongues, lately designated by European writers Indo-Chinese. These had commingled in certain localities with Chinese immigrants, who, with trifling exceptions, being males, take wives from amongst the people with whom they settle. Fresh immigrants being added, an improved population springs up, in which there is more skill and energy than in the original natives. What is true of China was equally so of Japan, as over that country also a peculiar race seems to extend. The Japanese had received letters and religion from China, but there was no evidence of a colonization of Chinese in Japan, whilst the wide difference in manner and language would indicate that no intermixture had taken place. From within this oceanic insular region from Formosa to New Zealand, where numerous races exist, the author selected the most prominent:--the Malay; the pigmy negro of the Malay peninsula and the Philippines; the negroes of New Guinea, New Caledonia, and the Fijis; the Polynesians; and the Australians. Among the native races there had been little commixture. The people of the Fiji group, however, afforded an example of a cross between the negro and the Polynesian; in this, we had an explanation of why the Fijians, cannibals as they are, were yet in a state of greater social advancement than the other negroes of the Pacific islands. The earliest people who mixed their blood with people of the Oceanic region were the Hindus; and this intermixture, as might be expected, was confined to the Malays. This intercourse and settlement was still in progress, and out of it had sprung a cross-breed known by the term Pâranakan. Arabian settlement had also been confined to the Malayan race. In neither case had the settlers effected any change in the physical character of the native population, although they had imprinted traces of languages, laws, and religions. The Chinese settlement was more recent than those of the Arabs and Hindus; and, as elsewhere, the immigrants, being males, had intermarried with native women, producing a mixed race. The Portuguese and Spaniards were the only Europeans that had intermingled with the Malayan races. In Pitcairn Island we had the unique case of a hybrid derivative from the European and brown Polynesian. These, as at present settled in Norfolk Island, were found to be wanting in the energy and enterprise of their paternal forefathers. A noticeable fact was the rapid increase of this little community without any addition by immigra tion. November 24th, 1863. The Rev. S. R. Hall, read a paper on the "Aboriginal Occupation of North Tynedale and Weston, Northumberland, in illustration of the Social Life of the Northumbrian Kelts." December 9th, 1863. The paper read was On the Commixture of the Races of Man as affecting the progress of Civilization-the New World." By J. Crawfurd, F.R.S.-" It was not until the discovery of a New World that races of man of strikingly-contrasted qualities came to intermix. The European people of antiquity and of the middle ages had hardly any experience of such admixtures. In the Western World, the intermixture of nations which followed the conquests-first of the Romans, and afterwards of the Northern Nations-was a union of races of equal quality, and hence it could not be predicted that either improvement or deterioration was the result. It could not, for example, be safely asserted that a Greek was superior to a Gaul, or a Roman superior to a Briton. Very different was the case in the Eastern World. There, Greeks, Romans, and Goths intermingled with races greatly inferior to themselves, such as Egyptians and Syrians, and hence the deterioration to which, in a great measure, must be ascribed that decline in civilization which ended in the downfall of the Roman power, not resulting, as in Western Europe, in a mixed race of high endowment and regeneration. The New World offered to the people of the Old, or at least to such of them as had the enterprise to enter on it, a field for the intermixture of races on a scale which was before unknown to them. Nearly the whole of its vast extent was peopled by one race of men essentially the same, although in very different states of society, the civilization attained by the most advanced among them being, however, of a very feeble and imperfect character. Physical geography seemed to have been a main cause of the differences which existed in the social condition of the people of the New World. The highest civilization was reached in the temperate and salubrious climate and forest-free valleys and plateaux of the Andes. The discovery of America introduced new and hostile elements into its population. The people of Europe poured in, and these, finding the native inhabitants too weak or unwilling to labour for taskmasters, introduced some millions of powerful-bodied and feeble-minded but docile African negroes for that purpose. From these causes, a great and various commixture of races had taken place, of which the Old World afforded no examples. In the forest-clad intertropical and subtropical regions of America, the European races had been planted in fewer numbers and under inauspicious conditions, and here many of the native races still existed in a state not materially differing from their condition when first discovered. In the valleys and plateaux of the Andes, however, a very different state of society had sprung up. Here a native agricultural population, too numerous and too much fixed to the soil for expulsion or extermination, existed, and a strange admixture of races had been the result, necessitating even the framing of a new nomenclature. Of this state of society, Mexico was the most prominent example." After giving some interesting details of the races of this country, Mr. Crawfurd remarked:" The result of the inquiry into the effects of the commixture of races, which I now bring to a conclusion, may be briefly recapitulated. Nature has endowed the various races of man with widely different qualities, bodily and mental, much in the same way as it has done with several closely allied species of the lower animals, as, for example, in the cases of the canine and equine families. The present state of the earth and all authentic history testify to this unquestionable fact. No one will at present venture to assert that the properties of a European and an Australian, of a Chinese, and of an Andaman Islander, are identical, or that there exists any law of nature by which one of these parties could have been changed into the other. When the qualities of dif ferent races of man are equal, no detriment results from their union. The mongrel French and English are equal to the pure breeds of Germany and Scandinavia. When, on the other hand, they are. unequal, deterioration of the higher race is the inevitable result. A pure Spaniard may be just as good as an Anglo-Saxon of Virginia or Massachusetts, but no one can imagine that a Mestizo of Mexico or Peru is on a par with an Anglo-American. In some cases, and under some conditions, there exists an antipathy to union that makes an amalgamation difficult. The aboriginal inhabitants of Spain readily amalgamated with Italians, and the descendants of these again with Goths; but eight centuries were not sufficient to cause Spaniards effectually to amalgamate with Arabs, and they finally rid themselves of them by expulsion. The Greek and Roman conquerors of Egypt, readily admixing with each other, do not seem to have admixed with the native Egyptians, who, however, afterwards readily |