people is free from that local feeling, which might lead him to countenance frauds upon the State, with a view to benefit his particular port. Directly the reverse of this, is found in the United States-the collectors of the customs having local interesis, tempting them to the permission of fraud, at the cost of the interests of both State and people. Hence it is, that the centralization of trade, at a single port, is growing with such rapidity, and that slavery makes such rapid strides. The more the social system tends towards concentration of the people, and augmentation of commerce, the more certain is the correction of the evils of political centralization. The more it tends towards dispersion of the population, and augmentation of the power of trade, the more certain is the production of political centralization, and the greater the tendency towards the ultimate enslavement of man.

CHAPTER XLIV.

OF CONCENTRATION AND CENTRALIZATION.

§ 1. THE people of the Happy Valley commenced the work of cultivation on the slopes of the hills standing between them and the outer world. Studying their movements, in the early stages of their society, we find an occasional family scattered here and there-cultivating thin and poor soils, in sight of others possessing all the qualities required for fitting them to yield liberal returns to labor. Nature, however, being there all-powerful, and they being poor and weak, they find themselves compelled to enter upon the contest with her at those places where she, too, is weak-being almost powerless for good, and, therefore, little capable of resistance to their efforts.

Their numbers, however, increasing, and wealth accumulating, we see them passing, from every point, slowly downward towards the valley-working always inward. Cultivation extending itself, and the facilities of intercourse increasing, the younger people are more and more enabled to associate-with growing tendency towards binding together the various settlements by means of the marriage tie. Population further augmenting, employments become diversified-farmers' sons becoming blacksmiths and tanners, tailors and hatters, masons and carpenters, weavers and millers, with growing sense of the advantage to be derived from extended commerce. Exchanges becoming from year to year more numerous, a town at length arises-the little community thus gradually becoming more complete, and more capable of self-support, were it to be forever debarred from intercourse with the outer world. The more perfect the power of the individual to command the services of nature - the greater his wealth-the more does he become individualised and independent; but the greater is hist power of combining with his fellow-men. So, too, is it with communities the power of maintaining intercourse with others, growing with every diminution in the necessity therefor.

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Entering, now, the house of one of these happy farmers, we find him, also, looking inward - his wife, his children, and his farm, standing foremost among the objects of his affection, and it being among them, that he seeks for happiness. Were we, however, to suppose the man whose thoughts were thus concentrated, to be thereby incapacitated from association with his fellow-men, we should greatly err—his power to remain at home being a direct consequence of the growing facility of combination. The miller being near him, he is not obliged to leave his farm when desiring to have his grain converted into flour. Close neighbor to the tanner, the hatter, and the weaver, he discusses with them the laying out of roads-the opening of streets through the little town-the building of churches-and the establishment of schools-combining with them, and all around them, for the maintenance of security, and, equally with them, contributing towards the expenses thence resulting. Combination promoting security, and facilitating the growth of wealth, wealth, in turn, enables him more and more to concentrate his thoughts and economise his time. That, again in turn, facilitates the further growth of wealth, by enabling him more and more to reflect upon the measures required for promoting the common goodto give his leisure for the benefit of those of his neighbors who have been less successful than himself to devote both time and mind to the acquisition of further knowledge-and thus, in every manner, to advance the interests of the society of which he is so fortunate as to be a member. Public labors being divided, the share of each is small. Public work is inexpensive-being done by men who themselves contribute towards the payment for it. All, thus, working, wealth grows rapidly, with corresponding diminution in the quantity of effort required for the maintenance of that entire security of person, and of property, the desire for which prompts to the association of men with their fellow-men.

Cultivation gradually extending itself over the rich soils, production steadily increases, with rapid growth of wealth, manifested by increase of power to control and direct the great natural forces, and as constantly declining power of resistance to human effort. Manure abounds-the consumer having taken his place by the side of the producer. Millers, carpenters, farmers, and blacksmiths, exchanging directly with each other,

and force being thus economised, the horse and the wagon have almost ceased to be required on the road, and are free for aiding in extending the work of cultivation, or in beautifying the little farm.

Placing ourselves, now, upon the mountain top, and looking downwards to the various little valleys, we see that, in all of them, the course of operation has been the same- each and all having commenced the work of cultivation on the higher and poorer lands, and the attention of all being directed towards a common centre, placed among the richer soils. In each and all, the growing facility of combination among themselves is attended. with increase of power for intercourse with others—the existence of this latter being attested by the gradual construction of roads leading over the hills which form the line of separation.

Intercourse increasing, the habit of union, so well begun in each, is seen to spread. Wealth and population further growing, commerce becomes more rapid-consumption following more closely after production, and enabling each and every man to find, on the instant, a purchaser for his labor, or its products. The habit of combination further extending, a larger association is formed, having in view the maintenance of peace and harmony among the various communities that have thus been formed. Union becoming more complete, rules are adopted for determining the relations of each community with every other—leaving to the general body the task of regulating intercourse with the outer world. General laws now embrace the whole of these societies-all constituting one great pyramid, wide of base, but slight in elevation.

Looking among the people of the several communities, we see that, to their members, the importance of these laws diminishes with increase of distance. First stands the home; next, the common home of many families; lastly, the general home of the several communities. In the first, each finds his chief source of happiness. In the second, the means of augmenting that happiness, by combination with his neighbors for the maintenance of the roads in daily use by himself and them-for the support of schools for his children, the library required for himself, and the church frequented by his family. In the third, he combines with more distant neighbors, for the maintenance of roads which he

sometimes uses, and for the regulation of affairs of general interest, by which he may sometimes be affected; whereas, in the regulation of those of his own community, he has a daily and hourly interest; and in those of his own particular home, an interest that ceases neither day nor night.

Though general laws are made, local regulation remain untouched each of the lesser bodies preserving its entire identity, rendered yet more perfect by combination with its neighbors. The union of all adds to the power of each, for the maintenance of that perfect security of person and property which is so essential to the growth of wealth and force, and to the further extension of cultivation over the richer soils. Each having its own government, for the regulation of matters pertaining to its several members, each submits to general rules, determining the relations between their own members, and those of the communities with which they are associated. The base of each widening, the richer soils come more and more into cultivation; and, with every step in that direction, their relations become more intimate -the habit of union steadily increasing, with constantly growing strength, and further development of individuality. Each, now, has its various churches, and its schools. Each has the consumer and the producer placed side by side. Each has its roads and bridges, and each its local court for the settlement of differences among its people. The machinery being simple, the cost is light-those who look to the affairs of the community doing so in the intervals of their own employments, and desiring to have little waste. In time, twenty, thirty, fifty, or a hundred communities at first scattered over the land, and separated by broad tracts of forest, deep and rapid rivers, or hills and mountainsare brought into connection with each other, to form a greater pyramid, or State. Perfect concentration, however, still exists -local rules still governing local interests, and local judges deciding local differences. Local roads and bridges are made under the direction of local officers; while mills, shops, and factories, relieve the farmer from the tax of transportationmaking, at home, demand for all the various products of the earth.

Wealth and population steadily increasing, the great union grows in strength because of the development of the parts of