Income for 1935 (returns filed to December 31, 1936), only 57 percent of the 2,235 active mills of the country had any net income; the other 43 percent made no profit.

PAPER A MODERN NECESSITY

In the United States, paper is an every-day necessity. Products of pulp and paper surround us in such numerous forms and have become so established as an integral part of our lives that we seldom realize the scores of uses to which these materials are put. Many of these uses are old, established ones; others are of more recent origin. From the time that we arise in the morning and read the news until we turn out the light at night (having first written our personal letters and cleansed our faces with facial tissue), we have been in almost constant contact with paper. The businessman sees it as bond or ledger paper, as index cards, filing folders, paper cups, and paper towels. The housewife sees it as paper bags, waxed paper, bottle caps, lace paper, towels, napkins, and paper diapers. We may hardly realize the fact as we work through the day; but we are, in reality, greatly dependent on paper-for sanitation and toilet uses, for insulation (both electrical and thermal), for decorating, for wrapping, and for packaging.

RANGE OF UTILITY

To suggest some of the numerous and varied uses for which products of pulp and paper are in constant demand, the following list has been prepared. The list could easily be doubled, trebled, or quadrupled but these uses will serve to suggest the wide range of application of paper, and its importance in our every-day economy.

In giving thought to pulp or paper uses, several are of such interest, because of their novelty, their importance, or their newness, as to warrant special treatment. The following would seem to fall within this class.

RAYON YARN AND RAYON STAPLE FIBER

In the manufacture of rayon yarn and rayon staple fiber, wood pulp is a highly important item. It is estimated that, during 1937, approximately 76 percent of the raw material used for rayon was wood pulp. The remainder was pulp from cotton linters.

Rayon filaments are formed by forcing a cellulose solution, in a continuous process, through a multitude of tiny orifices into a coagulating bath or hot-air chamber. On being thus formed, a varying number of these filaments are combined into a loosely twisted rayon yarn. Rayon yarn was not produced commercially in the United States until 1911, when 363,000 pounds were manufactured. By 1920, production had jumped to 10,000,000 pounds; by 1930, to 127,000,000 pounds; and by 1937, to 312,000,000 pounds. Approximately threefourths of the 1937 production was by the viscose process.

Rayon staple fiber is the same product as rayon-filament yarn except that the filaments are cut into short lengths and spun with cotton, wool, or other textile fibers. In manufacturing rayon staple fiber the filaments from 2,000 or more orifices are grouped together and drawn into a continuous "rope." This rope is run through a machine which cuts it into the desired lengths-1% to 2 inches for use in spinning on the cotton system, and longer lengths for the worsted system. The manufacture of rayon staple fiber is a recent development in the United States. In 1928 the domestic production was 165,000 pounds; by 1930, production had risen to 350,000 pounds; and by 1937, to 20,000,000 pounds. As with rayon-filament yarn, by far the greater portion of rayon staple fiber is produced by the viscose process.

Wood pulp used in the manufacture of rayon yarn and rayon staple fiber is of the bleached sulphite type, highly refined. It is estimated that the 1937 domestic production of the two products required more than 100,000 tons of this purified sulphite pulp, in addition to that produced for export.

TRANSPARENT CELLULOSE SHEETING

Transparent cellulose sheeting is another product the greater portion of which is made from wood pulp.

Two major methods of production-the viscose and the acetateare used in the manufacture of this sheeting. The viscose method predominates. With this method, wood pulp is used almost exclusively as the base stock. The acetate method has come into commercial use only during the last few years and is responsible for a smaller proportion of the total production. The acetate method uses cotton linters as the base stock. With either method the base stock is put into solution exactly as in the manufacture of rayon yarn or rayon staple fiber; but instead of being drawn out as a filament, the solution is forced through a long slit, is hardened, and emerges as a transparent sheet suitable for wrapping and packaging purposes. The wood pulp used is of the bleached sulphite type, highly purified.

As a wrapping and packaging material the use of the viscose type of transparent cellulose sheeting has risen by leaps and bounds during the past few years. It is used as a protective covering for candies, cakes, bread, and other foodstuffs; for perfumes, soaps, tobacco, and cigarettes; for shirts, blouses, dresses, and other textiles; as well as for numerous other articles. The acetate type of sheeting is used for the same purposes. Either type can be dyed, embossed, printed, or fabricated. The sheeting protects articles which would soil if exposed to dust and handling, and permits the packaged product to be seen through the wrapping.

CELLULOSE WADDING

Cellulose wadding, or artificial cotton, is a wood-pulp product of relatively recent origin. Cleansing tissue, barbers' neckbands, sanitary napkins, babies' diapers, surgical dressings, and similar products where high absorptive quality or extreme softness is desired, are often made of this base stock. In general, a bleached sulphite type of wood pulp is used for the purpose.

Experiments in the manufacture of a softwood cellulose, equaling cotton in purity and having greater absorptive qualities, had been carried on in both Germany and Sweden prior to the World War. With the entry of the United States into the war, the demands on cotton became heavier than ever, and search was pushed for a cotton substitute. Cellulose wadding was the result. Surgical dressings of "paper" were made as early as 1918, as is evidenced by an order placed by the Surgeon General's office with a paper-converting company; but it is also evident by their description that they were not entirely satisfactory.

In 1920, just following the war, a well-known paper-manufacturing company placed on the market facial tissues, and sanitary napkins which consisted of a wrapper of sterilized cotton gauze around a filler of cellulose wadding. Both these products proved immensely popu

lar, and from this as a starting point, the use of cellulose wadding was extended to barbers' neckbands, diaper linings, candy pads, and handkerchiefs. Recently this material has been used as a protective padding for fine furniture and as packing material for a large variety of products where protection from scratching and breakage or rapid changes in temperature is essential. In general appearance this blanket padding is not unlike a number of layers of cleansing tissue

Figure 7.-Radios and fine furniture are often packed with a protective blanket of cellulose wadding-a product with a wide variety of uses.

built up into mat form. All of the products mentioned are white in color except those used in packaging bulky products, which are usually of a lower quality and have the color of unbleached pulp.

No figures are available to show the annual production of cellulose wadding in the United States. It is known, however, that since 1920 its use has risen rapidly. Also, whereas there was but one company engaged in its manufacture in 1920, there are now eight or nine so engaged. Cellulose wadding is, of course, strictly a specialty product.