nearly or quite free from chlorophylle granules, and the cell-walls are comparatively thick, the structural material not occupying the central parts of the cells, but being collected at the cell-walls and apparently outside and between them. If having previously sliced away the outer integument of the leaf, a thin section be taken of the green parenchyma, the cellular element displayed has a very different appearance. It consists of smaller distinct cells arranged around oval or rounded vacant spaces, and if the succulent leaf of Sedum acre be crushed between two slips of glass, the incoherent cellular elements are found scattered and dispersed upon them. It is well known that two important functions are performed by leaves-respiration and secretion; and it appears from my examinations that in the leaves of phanerogamia, each function has its appropriate anatomical structure-the coherent cellular textures ministering to the form of the leaf, and to respiration; the incoherent cellular texture, to secretion or nutrition. That the interior of a leaf is full of air, may be demonstrated by a microscopical examination of the parenchyma; and that the air is situated in numerous air-passages, is also equally evident, at the same time. That this air may be forced out by heat, is readily shewn by immersing a leaf in boiling water, when the under surface becomes thickly coated with minute air-bubbles, which appear to escape by the stomata; for the upper surface of the leaf, if uninjured, never allows of the escape of similar bubbles. When, therefore, the broad upper surface of a leaf is exposed to the noon-day sun, the air occupying the air-passages must expand; and if all the passages be filled with air, some portions of it, altered doubtless by the respiring functions of the incoherent cellular texture, must escape, either through the stomata, in which the air-passages terminate, or by other means. But when the sun's rays are obscured by passing clouds, and at night, the air within the leaf, becoming colder, will contract in bulk, and there will be space for fresh portions of the outward air to enter. Heat or caloric, therefore, is the efficient cause; and change of temperature-sun and cloud-day and night-the conditions of respiration in the leaf; inspiration taking place during the passage of clouds, and at night; expiration going on when the sun shines upon the leaf. In most of the herbaceous plants, the green matter of the lower leaves visibly disappears during the inflorescence and the growth of the seed, that is to say they wither and dry up. This is remarkably the case in the sedums, lilies, &c., and the fact is observable in all tender plants, should there be any lack of moisture at the important time of flowering. The following, among many other examples, may be related in illustration :-If a plant of the garden nasturtium (Tropæolum majus,) be pulled up whilst in vigorous growth in the autumn, and thrown upon the ground in the sun, it will continue flowering for a month or six weeks, putting forth new shoots, new flowers, leaves and seeds; but during all this time the older leaves are gradually, from below upwards, one after another, exhausted of their green matter, withering and shrivelling up. From these and many other facts well known to botanists, but which it is unnecessary to particularize, it is concluded that the green matter contained in the cells of the incoherent cellular texture of the leaf is of the nature of a secretion elaborated within the cells, giving sensible properties or qualities to the leaf, and essential to the growth of the subsequent parts of the structure, the flower, the seed, or the bud; while the coherent cellular texture gives form and stability to the leaf, and administers to the function of respiration. The distinction between the coherent and incoherent cellular textures clearly exists in nature; the former may be seen in the wood and pith; the latter in the bark and leaves. These two textures may be oftentimes conjoined, and run by transitional stages into each other; still they are as frequently disassociated, and when they are so, they are as distinct in appearance and mechanical properties as they seem to be in function.* The general nature of the parenchymatous part of leaves, which I have termed the incoherent cellular texture, has been well explained by LINK and others, and was figured by MOHL, in 1828; but the most complete account is that of M. ADOLPHE BRONGNART, in 1830, of which the following is an abstract : : The cuticle is a layer of cellules, adhering firmly to each other, and sometimes but slightly to the subjacent tissue, from which they are entirely different in form and nature-in form, for the cellules are depressed, and in consequence of the variety of outline they present, form meshes, either regular or irregular; and in nature, because these cellules are perfectly transparent and colourless, and probably filled with air. They scarcely ever contain any organic particles, and are probably but little permeable, either to fluids or gaseous matter; while on the other hand, the cellules of the subjacent parenchyma are filled with the green substance that determines the colour of the leaf. Beneath the upper cuticle are two or three layers of oblong cells, generally of much less diameter than the cells of the cuticle, and therefore easily seen through it; the cells have little intervals or spaces between them, and in leaves that have stomata on their upper surface, there are among the cells some large spaces through which the stomata communicate with the interior of the leaf. On the under surface of the leaf, the cells of the parenchyma are irregular, often having two or three branches which unite with the • Cellular tissue is found in three essentially diferent states, membranous, fibrous, and parenchymatous;— membrane and fibres combined form a fibro-cellular, and parenchyma and fibres form a fibro-corpuscular texture. MORPHOLOGY OF THE TEXTURES. limbs of the cells next them, and so form spaces which are larger than the cells themselves, and either correspond directly with the stomata, or are in communication with them.* (For examples of the incoherent cellular parenchyma of a leaf, and of the coherent cellular structure of the cuticle and ribs, I refer the reader to Dr. Lindley's "Introduction to Botany," plate 1, fig 2, 3, 6, and 7; plate 3, fig 5, ed., 1832.) Mr. Edwin Lees, who is well known as an indefatigable and practical botanist, has permitted me to state his opinion upon the structure of a leaf. "I have perused Dr. Addison's account of the vegetable tissue, and seen his demonstrations with the microscope repeatedly. It appears to me that the distinction of coherent and incoherent cellular structure, is not only correct in fact, but of considerable importance in a physiological point of view. It is clear that the coherent cellular structure forms the supporting frame-work of the leaf; and that it abounds with air is satisfactorily proved by Dr. Addison's experiment of immersing a leaf in boiling water, when the under surface gives exit to numerous air-vesicles. It therefore appears correct to attribute to this structure an important function in respiration; and it appears equally correct to suppose that the system of nutrition and secretion goes on in the cells containing the granules of chlorophylle, which are frequently found but very slightly coherent. The coherent and incoherent structures are not easily demonstrated perhaps as distinct structures in every leaf, but I believe they exist. Though well aware with other botanists that leaves carried on the operations of respiration and secretion, yet the different functions attributed to the two kinds of cellular tissue have never previously, I believe, been insisted on. The fact necessarily leads to inductions before undeveloped."-EDWIN LEES, /F.L.S., Fellow of the Botanical Societies of London and Edinburgh. If the structure of a petal be examined in the same way with a microscope, we find a coherent cellular structure, abounding with air, to which indeed the whiteness and opacity of a white petal is wholly due. This coherent cellular texture has various forms, and the transparent homogeneous cell-walls are frequently marked with delicate stria. The cells usually contain either a coloured fluid, or numerous coloured granules and molecules; and it is evident if the structural elements of a petal are formed by a process of metamorphosis from the leafy texture, that it is the green granular chlorophylle of the cellular parenchyma that has experienced the greatest amount of change; in other words, whereas the colour of the leaf is green, and the colour of the petal blue, scarlet, or yellow, See, for a more detailed account of the structure of leaves, "Lindley's Introduction to Botany," particularly p. 85, ed., 1832, 35 so therefore, if the structural elements of the petal are metamorphosed out of the leafy texture, it must be the incoherent cells containing the green matter,— the secreted and proper juices of the leaf, that have experienced the greatest amount of change. If we extend the microscopical examination to lower forms of vegetation, we find the fibrous or woody textures, and spiral vessels to disappear, the leaves of mosses and the fronds of ferns consisting wholly of cells, filled with a green matter, and rendered coherent by a thickening of their walls. Still lower, we find in the converfæ elongated cells, joined end to end, each cell containing green granules of chlorophylle. Lastly, there are vegetable textures, consisting of cells filled with green matter, and of so slight a coherency, that the merest touch is sufficient to separate them from each other. The order of vegetable structure then appears to be:1. Forms consisting of incoherent cellular texture; masses of cells or corpuscles with an interior (generally green) matter. These are the lowest forms-algæ and lichens, in which every cell or corpuscle is both a respiring and a secreting structure. 2. Forms consisting of coherent cellular texture; cells with an interior (generally green) matter, cobering either end to end as in the confervæ; or on all sides as in fungi, mosses, and ferns. Here again every cell is both a respiring and a secreting structure. 3. Forms consisting of a compound cellular texture, in which two distinct cellular elements with distinct functions are conjoined and co-exist; the coherent cellular element connected with the stomata and airpassages ministering to respiration, and the incoherent with the green granules of the chlorophylle within them executing the function of secretion. And it would appear that in the leaves of phanerogamia, there is a large quantity of air stored up in the air-passages, formed by the coherent cellular texture for the uses of the incoherent cellular texture. As we ascend in the scale of life and being, so we find more and more clearly special organs or textures appointed to special functions; let me therefore recapitulate the points I wish to urge upon the reader's attention. In the lowest forms of vegetable structure, the functions of secretion, growth and respiration, are conjoined in each cell or corpuscle, and these cells in many cases cohere so slightly, that the texture falls to pieces on being touched or handled. In some instances the structure is no more than a light cellular powder, and in others mucoid or soft. But in the leaves of phanerogamia, there is a coherent texture supporting the stomata and administering to the respiratory function; and also a less coherent texture executing the function of secretion. I am sensible that the terms incoherent and coherent, as applied to the leaf, do but partially and inaccurately express the distinctions insisted on between the secréting, the soft and brittle, cellular textures, and the the same disease, and others following after him subnon-secreting, coherent, and elastic ones; between thejected to the same influences, and sharing the same green cellular parenchyma, and the outer cellular fate, with sufficient frequency and certainty to justify membrane of the leaf. The distinctions are, however, the conclusion that the one was the cause of the other,— very palpable, and in animal structures so important, and we were asked by what means or through what that I purpose, in order to avoid confusion of terms, channel the system of the one became affected by the and yet preserve the distinctions set before us by exhalations from the body of the other, we should, I nature, to use the term corpuscular texture for the think, have little hesitation in answering, that the very soft, opaque, and friable cellular textures, limiting matter exhaled from the bodies of the fever-patients the term cellular to those which are coherent, trans- entered the lungs of the healthy persons, along with parent, and elastic. For example, the liver and intes- the atmospheric air, and thus found entrance into the tinal villi, I would say, are corpuscular textures; the lung blood, where it accumulated until its amount was a cellular texture;-the two former being opaque, sufficient to impede the healthy functions of the bodyfriable, and incoherent; the latter transparent, elastic, that is, until fever was produced. and coherent; and if so, then there is prima facie evidence of an analogy between the blood of animals and the parenchymatous texture of a leaf. REMARKS ON FEVER. Again, if we were farther informed, that twenty previously healthy persons, from different localities, were similarly subjected to the influences above-mentioned, and that every one of these twenty persons was attacked by the disease, but that none of them were so until after an exposure of one or more weeks, some By WILLIAM DAVIES, M.D., Physician to the Bath of them after a lapse of three months, and no two United Hospital. (Read at the Quarterly Meeting of the Bath and Bristol Branch of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association.) The few remarks which I am about to submit to this meeting have reference to a disease which has, perhaps, given rise to more discussion in the medical world than any other, and concerning which there still remain various and conflicting opinions,-this is fever; and in what is to follow, I would be understood as referring to the common or idiopathic continued fever of this country, the general features of which every medical man is familiar with, more especially those who have past any part of their professional career in Edinburgh or Dublin. My remarks shall be first on the nature of continued fever; and secondly, on the pathology of head-complication, as illustrative of what has preceded, and with reference to practice. The two following propositions must be granted :First, that the disease is communicable-or that an individual subjected to a sufficiently close intercourse with another labouring under continued fever, may become similarly affected. Second: That in order to a disease being communicable, it is essential that certain matter shall pass off from the body of the individual affected, and be received into that of him who is to suffer. It is unimportant whether this entrance is effected by inoculation, or by means of atmospheric transmission; at present we have to do with the latter. Now, if an individual were much confined to an apartment in which there were patients labouring under continued fever, breathing air loaded with the exhalations from such patients, and if, after a time, the individual thus circumstanced were to be seized with of them at precisely the same interval of time,—this would add confidence to our opinion, and we would say that the interval which elapsed between the first exposure and the seizure, marked the period during which the poison was accumulating in the blood, and that the difference, as regards length of interval, between exposure and attack, was an index as to the vigour or weakness of the different constitutions. Our informant does not stop here, but tells us, that during the early period of the attack, and whilst it is at its height, the power to infect is not nearly so great as during the decline of the disease, and the advance towards convalescence. Here is another element in our belief, and we say, that whilst the disease is declining, and the patient recovering, the system is engaged in freeing itself of the poisonous matter, which is being evolved at the various emunctories of the body. Now, these are not speculations, but carefully ascertained facts, and lead, I think, very conclusively to the belief, that in continued fever, the blood is primarily affected. I will not enter into the question, whether the constitution of the blood itself is changed by the action of the poison of fever, or, whether the blood merely serves as a vehicle for the conveyance of that poison in a free state to the various organs. This is a question unimportant as regards my present object; and moreover, we do not possess materials sufficient for its elucidation. I will now proceed to a few practical deductions from, and illustrations of, the foregoing remarks. Every practitioner who has seen much of continued fever in this country, is aware that the great danger he has to apprehend is the supervention of cerebral symptoms; here the intestinal follicular lesion is comparatively rare, and thoracic complication seldom formidable; the rock a-head he dreads is cerebral Medicine":-He says, "He was a young man of robust symptoms. Now, what I wish particularly to call habit and apparently good constitution, and laboured attention to, is the fact, that when such symptoms do under the ordinary form of maculated typhus, Shortly arise in the course of continued fever, they depend on after his admission he was attacked with delirium, which a pathological cause, altogether distinct from that was soon after followed by coma and death. Now, which is competent for the production of similar symp- suppose you were called to see a patient, not labourtoms, when no fever exists—namely inflammation; and ing under typhus, but exhibiting a similar train of hence the remedies of inflammation are not always to symptoms,-that is to say, violent delirium, accombe had recourse to, and never to the extent that would | panied by flushing of the face, suffusion of the eyes, be advisable in primary encephalitis. The real cause headache, and a tendency to get out of bed,—in fact, of the head-symptoms would seem to be the effect a state of furious excitement, requiring the restraint of which the poisoned or altered blood circulating in the the strait waistcoat, what idea would you be likely brain produces on the functions of that organ; and to form of the condition of the brain? If a patient of strong evidence of the truth of this is to be found— | this kind had no typhoid symptoms, you would cerfirst, in the progress of the disease, and secondly, in its tainly say that he was labouring under meningitis or ceremorbid anatomy. britis; and if the case proves fatal, you would naturally expect to find lesions of the brain fully sufficient to account for all his symptoms. And you would in all probability find extensive thickening of the membranes of the brain, with sub-arachnoid effusion, or you would discover softening, increased vascularity, and suppuration of the encephalic mass. But here, a man in fever exhibits all the symptoms of cerebral inflammation; the cerebral affection runs on to a fatal termination with great rapidity; he dies comatose. And what do we find on dissection? Doubtful signs of congestioa, and no distinct evidence of inflammation; a slight opacity of the arachnoid at the base of the brain, and about a tea-spoonful of clear sub-arachnoid effusion." He then says, "This seems to prove that in the production of cerebral symptoms in typhus, some cause not to be recognised by the production of cerebral lesions, or in other words, something besides mere congestion or inflammation exists." And this brings us back to our starting point-namely, that this "something," which is neither inflammation nor congestion, is the effect of the poison of fever on the blood, rendering that fluid unfit for the support of the healthy functions of the brain. 1st. In the progress of the disease, we find that the head-symptoms, during the early period of the attack, are confined to frontal headache and giddiness, with more or less of intolerance of light and sound; and as the disease advances, these conditions pass into great restlessness and sleeplessness, with active delirium, or it may be great torpor and drowsiness, with a wandering and confused state of mind when roused; and either of these forms may pass gradually into coma and death, or under more fortunate circumstances, into convalescence and recovery. All this would seem to mark the increasing influence of the poison on the blood, and through the blood, on the cerebral functions; and when this influence terminates short of death, we have another law of the action of poisons brought into play—namely, that after a time they lose their power over that particular system, and are discharged therefrom, leaving the individual in a fair way of recovery. Hence the wisdom of Cullen's statement,-that the proper object of treatment is "to obviate the tendency to death," well knowing that if the patient can be kept alive, and free from serious local lesion, for a sufficient time, the system will shake off the load of poison by which it is oppressed. 2nd. In the morbid anatomy of the brain in fatal cases of fever, from which ample proof has been obtained that there is no necessary connection what ever between the symptoms presented during life, and the morbid appearances discovered after death. I have examined the head in several cases, and one since I have been physician to the United Hospital, in this town, when death has taken place by way of coma supervening on the continued fever, without being able to discover any cerebral lesion at all proportionate to the symptoms, not anything more decided than slight sub-arachnoid effusion and perhaps, a drachm of fluid in the lateral ventricles. Dr. Alison, M. Andral, and Dr. Graves, have placed on record abundant evidence of the inability of morbid anatomy, to explain the cause of head-symptoms in continued fever. The following case in point is from Dr. Graves's "Clinical It may be asked, why, in an attempt to fix on the blood as the starting point in fever, has no analysis of that fluid been submitted? The answer to this question is, simply, that no analysis has yet been made which has thrown any light on the matter, that is to say, the specific poison on which fever seems to depend has never been isolated. But this need not in the least surprise us, for there may be and doubtless are, many things in the blood which chemistry is unable to isolate,-urea for example. No chemist has yet succeeded in finding urea in healthy blood, yet if the function of the kidneys be arrested for a time, the presence of urea in the blood is easily demonstrated, showing that it does exist in healthy blood, although we are not able to find it. So again as regards sugar in the blood of diabetic patients. It was long before chemists succeeded in demonstrating the presence of sugar under such circumstances, and when this was done, it was by taking advantage of a well known bandage, and ordered cold water to be applied frequently. Pulse 96; tongue white. Mist. Salinæ, oz. iss., quartis horis. Haust. Sennæ statim. 22nd. Has been more tranquil since yesterday, and got some sleep at intervals during the night. No hæmorrhage; bowels open; less feverish; pulse 90; tongue white. 23rd. Going on favourably, but the stump smells offensive, and is stiff and uncomfortable. 25th. At my visit this morning I removed the dressings, and found that partial adhesion had taken place; the stump discharged a thin fluid, but looked pretty CASE OF PARTIAL AMPUTATION OF THE healthy. I dressed the parts with soap-cerate plaster RIGHT FOOT. By JOHN WICKENS WEST, L.A.C., M.R.C.S., &c. Andrew Cobb, aged 25, by occupation a farmer, met with a severe accident to his right foot, August 20th, 1846. He had been engaged with his labourers at a thrashing machine, and his attention being suddenly attracted by one of his children approaching too near, he was put off his guard, and caught his foot in the machinery. It produced extensive laceration of the soft parts, and a comminuted fracture of all the phalanges of the toes excepting the little one, which was left entire. The metatarsal bones of the second and third toes were also fractured. The phalanges of the great and fourth toes were left in the machine, and those of the third merely hung by integuments. The bleeding at the time of the accident was considerable, but was timely arrested by a professional friend, who visited him in my absence. and bandage. Bowels open; pulse 96. To continue his medicine. 27th. On removing the bandage I found considerable discharge, very offensive and thick, and evident appearance of granulations. I ordered a bread poultice to be applied night and morning. 29th. The poultices have been continued since my last visit, and there is much improvement in the appearance of the parts, which are disposed to granulate freely. The ligatures are come away. November 2nd. I omitted the poultices this morning, the parts looking so thoroughly healthy, and the granulations so exuberant, that I commenced applying caustic and dry lint, with straps of soap-plaster over. 3rd. The parts look healthy, and inclined to heal. I continued the same treatment for three weeks, by which time the stump was completely healed, and the man was enabled, by the assistance of crutches, to get about. I would remark, that I consider it far preferable, in all cases were it is possible, to amputate the foot at the centre of the metatarsal bones than to remove it at the The articulation of those bones with the tarsal. Poole, December 26, 1846. December 12th. I visited him this morning and On my arrival at his house about an hour afterwards, I found that the foot was merely bound up in a hand-found he was able to put on an easy shoe, and could walk tolerably well with a stick. kerchief, by the desire of the poor man, who was anxious for me to see him before an operation was performed. There had been no farther hæmorrhage, the artery, (popliteal,) being well secured by the tourniquet. On examination of the parts I found it quite impossible to save any of the toes, I therefore deter-opening of joints, however small, is always attended by mined, in consultation with Dr. Crabb, to perform considerable irritation, and increases the sufferings of the patient. partial amputation of the foot; and as the soft parts beyond the toes were not much injured, I resolved to amputate as near to the seat of injury as possible, in order to retain for the poor fellow a useful limb. I commenced my incision on the dorsum of the foot, carrying it through the integuments in an oblique direction round the sole, thus securing a good flap. I then divided the tendons and other soft parts, and sawed through the centre of the metatarsal bones. The arteries were with some difficulty secured, especially the internal plantar; the outer being larger was more easily tied. The integuments were then brought in apposition, and retained by two ligatures, and the parts dressed with plaster and bandage. The man bore the operation remarkably well, and lost but little blood. Forty drops of the tincture of opium were given him shortly after, and I left him for the night. 21st. Visited him this morning, and found he had passed a restless night, and complained the bandage was too tight, and the stump painful. I slackened the Hospital Reports. WEST NORFOLK AND LYNN HOSPITAL. By CHARLES COTTON, M.D., F.R.C.S., &c. William Wicks, farm-labourer, aged 26, admitted at 10 p.m., October 27th, 1844. States that whilst unloading a cart of earth on the morning of the 25th a lump came down, which he was unable to return. He has been sick ever since, and the bowels have not acted. The surgeon who saw him having failed in the use of |