times been affected by the literatures of ancient Rome and of contemporary France and Italy. We have, hereafter, a vast and complicated product, reflecting the tendencies of various streams in a vast and complicated civilization. We can only touch, and that briefly, on some of the most salient and striking points in its development.

Character

Period.

As the Norman period is composite and transitional, its characteristics are multiform. The most important results from the literary point were the infusion of some istics of the of the lighter and of some of the romantic qualities into English literature, and the educational effect which followed from making the English mind acquainted with the writings of a different civilization. The general characteristics of the French of the period were intellectual liveliness, wit, good sense, and something of a mocking or good-humoredly satiric spirit. The idea of chivalry as embodied in the conception of the pure knight, Galahad, and the quest for the Holy Grail was their highest inspiration, nor can it be denied that these are noble and pure poetic allegories however much it may be questioned whether they originated from a French source. But, as said before, cultured wit is the main contribution of the French mind to the literature of England. Poetry for the Norman knights was the "gay science," and the Saxon seriousness or the Celtic plaintive melancholy were both alien to their spirit. It is thought that the Norman jongleurs (joculatores) and minstrels introduced the mimetic element into the literature of amusement, and that the Norman ecclesiastics introduced the liturgical plays or mysteries into England, and so laid the foundation of dramatic art. However this may be, there can be no doubt that the Germanic solidity of the

English character shaped itself in time under the influence of the liveliness and culture of the French, and became capable as shown in Chaucer of much more brilliant,

varied, and delicate expression than had been possible among the Anglo-Saxon English before the Norman Conquest.

QUESTIONS

What impress did the Normans leave on English character and manners?

Show how the revival of letters which immediately followed the Conquest was a purely ecclesiastical revival.

Name three important monastic chronicles and their authors.

What is the relation of Geoffrey of Monmouth to the literature of the Arthurian legend?

What were some of the political and ecclesiastical views of the Norman kings and churchmen?

Name three native Englishmen of this period who wrote in French? Describe the Norman lais and fabliaux.

For what works produced in England did they form the models?

*MARSH, G. P. Semi-Saxon Literature. (In his Origin and History

of the English Language, c. 4.)

KER, W. P. Epic and Romance, 1897.

MORLEY, H. English Writers, v. 3–5.

TAINE, H. A.

* WRIGHT, T. Period.

History of English Literature, bk. i, c. 2.

Biographia Britannica Literaria: Anglo-Norman

WARTON, T. History of English Poetry, v. 1, Sections 1-3.

*For advanced students.

CHAPTER III

THE FIRST ENGLISH PERIOD (1360 to 1525)

Historical References

FROISSART, J. Chronicles of England, France, and Spain. Translated by T. Johnes, 2 v.

GREEN, J. R. History of the English People (Larger History), v. 1, bk. iv.

GUIZOT. History of England, c. 10–18.

JESSOP, A. Coming of the Friars, and other essays.

KNIGHT, C. History of England, v. 2.

FROUDE, J. A. Life and Letters of Erasmus.

Historical

WITH the close of the Norman-French period the various race elements that go to the making of the English nation were pretty thoroughly unified. The Sketch. Norman was no longer a foreigner, but an Englishman, though French was for some time used in the law courts as Latin was used in the lectures and disputations at the universities. The foundations of the English Constitution were laid. Wars with France intensified the feeling of English nationality. The institution of chivalry tended to refine manners and upheld a high ideal of courage and courtesy, and it attained a brilliant development in the court of Edward III. (1327–1377). In the last quarter of the fourteenth century Geoffrey Chaucer, the first great English poet, illustrated the opening of the "first English literary period " in a series of poems which express the life of his age with a vivacity and brilliancy unequaled till we reach the days of Shakespeare.

The century following Chaucer's death in 1400 is sometimes characterized (perhaps unjustly) as the "blank period." Nevertheless, events of far-reaching influence took place before its close. In 1492 the discovery of the West Indies initiated the maritime expeditions which, by widening the boundaries of the known world and modifying men's conceptions of the relation of our globe to the universe, were one of the causes of the audacity of the imagination of the Elizabethan age. The art of printing was introduced into England in 1477. The use of gunpowder in wars dates from the fifteenth century, and this certainly had a great effect in breaking up the feudal constitution of society. All these are what are commonly termed epoch-making events, and redeem the fifteenth century from the charge of barrenness. In the intellectual world we note that the first impulse from the Renaissance in Italy reached Chaucer through the works of Petrarch and Boccaccio, that Wycklif's Bible and Tyndall's translations of the New Testament brought men into contact with the new conceptions of religion and duty which, though taking many different forms, were the underlying motives of the Reformation, and were, to say the least, a powerful intellectual ferment.

Greek was first taught in Oxford in 1491. The learned and witty Erasmus, the tone of whose criticism is quite modern, visited England in 1497. These dates, indeed, are in the last decade of the century, but Malory's "Morte Darthur" was printed in 1485. This, at least in its effect on later poets and on the general mind of England, was an important book.

Only a very meager outline of Chaucer's life can be constructed, but he is not unique in this regard, for very

few biographical details can be gathered about any writer till we come to Milton in the seventeenth century. The

Geoffrey Chaucer, 1340(?)1400.

authorities for Chaucer's life are a few references in his own writings and those of his contemporaries or immediate successors, and many entries in the state papers of the period, showing that he was employed in various capacities by the government. Even the date of his birth is not known with certainty. The evidence is conflicting, even supposing that it all relates to the same individual, and neither Geoffrey nor Chaucer (shoemaker) were uncommon names.1 In 1556 a monument was raised to the memory of the poet in Westminster Abbey, giving the date of his death as 1400 and his age as seventy-two, which would put the year of his birth as far back as 1328. In a famous lawsuit in the tenth year of Richard II.'s reign, between the families of Scrope and Grosvenor, a witness was called, October 12, 1386, who is described as "Geoffry Chaucer, Esquire, del age de xl ans et plus, armiez par xxvij ans. According to the inscription in the Abbey, Chaucer would have been fifty-seven at that date. The record of the lawsuit is, of course, entitled to great weight as a contemporary document, but, on the other hand, the age of a witness is not a matter on which it is necessary to be accurate. The dates on a tombstone or other mortuary monument are also regarded as trustworthy evidence if the inscription is made soon after death. In the present case the direct evidence stated above, and the indirect evidence, allusions in Chaucer's works and records of employment in diplomatic missions and political offices, are fairly reconciled by assuming the date of his birth as not later than 1340.

1 The name Chaucer may, however, be derived from Chauffe-cire, wax-melter.