subject snow, constitutes a proposition; that is, expresses an assertion, or, what is the same thing, a complete thought.]

(8) In the arrangement of an assertive proposition, the subject is generally placed before the assertive word. This may be considered the natural order (9), though it is often inverted by poets to suit their measure, and by orators for rhetorical effect. (10) The contrary arrangement also prevails in some few forms of expres sion in ordinary use; as, “says I," "said he," and the now obsolete form of expression, " quoth he," and perhaps a few other forms of assertion.

§ 15. (1) In the analysis of proposition, the learner should always direct his attention first to the assertive word. (2) This we recommend, first, because this is the most important part of every proposition; and, secondly, because it is the part most easily recognised. This results from the fact, that the assertive word is always employed for one and the same purpose (except it should be a word of double meaning-see § 16, below), whereas the class of words employed to represent the subjects of propositions (without any change of meaning) perform other functions, serve other purposes besides expressing the subjects of propositions. (3) The answer to the question, formed by the assertive word preceded by what, gives the subject. For example, Beauty fades. What fades? Ans., Beauty, the subject.

It is now time to exercise the pupil in pointing out the words which express the subjects, and the words which express the combined predicates and copulas, or what, for the sake of brevity, we may call the assertive words, in the following and similar proposi tions.

EXERCISE I.-Beauty fades. Virtue flourishes. Memory decays. Time fleets. Day dawns. Corn grows. Rain falls. Water freezes.

(8) What is the usual or natural order of arrangement of the subject, and the assertive word (or combined predicate and copula) in an assertive proposition? (9) Mention classes of writers that sometimes invert the usual order, and the purposes for which they take this liberty with the arrangement in common use. (10) Mention some of the inverted expressions in ordinary use.

§ 15. (1) To which part of a proposition should the learner first direct his attention in attempting an analysis? (2) State the reasons assigned for recommending this course. (8) Tell how to form a question to which the answer is the subject of a given proposition. Illustrate by an example.

Men walk.. Reptiles creep.

Birds fly.

Gunpowder explodes. Fishes swim. Boys play. Children talk. Laborers work, &c. &c. The pupil may be questioned on these examples according to the following model. Example: "Beauty fades." Do these two words form a proposition? Ans. Yes. Why? Ans. Because they express an assertion. What is the assertive word in this proposition, and why is it so called? Ans. "Fades" is the assertive word, because it expresses the predicate, and indicates assertion. Point out the subject-word of the proposition, and tell why you call it the subject. Ans. "Beauty" expresses the subject, because it is in regard of beauty (about beauty) that the assertion expressed by the word "fades" is made. Can the predicate of this proposition be expressed alone-separate from the copula? Ans. Yes, it may be expressed by the word fading. Fading is exactly what is here asserted of beauty. Can the copula be expressed separately? Ans. No; the copula is never expressed by a separate word, but is always combined with the predicate, or the leading part of the predicate, to form the assertive word.

The teacher can add more examples, if he pleases. But it is better, we think, to encourage the pupil to form examples for himself, in the manner prescribed in the following exercises. A good exercise may also be given by selecting a passage from any book. or taking one of the exercises in the more advanced part of this work, and requiring the learner to point out the subject and assertive word of each proposition.

EXERCISE II.-Form propositions, by uniting such other assertive words as will make sense with the subjects in Exercise I.

Under this, and some of the following exercises, the pupil may be required to construct a given number of propositions for a lesson; and he may continue the exercise so long as he finds he can supply appropriate assertive words to unite with the given subjects.

EXERCISE III.—Form a given number of propositions by uniting other subjects with the assertive words in Exercise I.

EXERCISES IV., V., &c.-Let the pupil now form two-worded propositions from his own resources, without having either subject ɔr assertive word suggested to him.

In a class, let each pupil try who can construct the greatest number of appropriate propositions consisting of two words.

NOTE.—These exercises must be continued till the learner clearly comprehends what constitutes a proposition, and can readily distinguish the terms which form its essential parts. Here let a sure foundation for the work of grammatical analysis be laid. This being done, we trust the learner will be able, on the plan we propose, to pursue this study with ease, satisfaction, and rapid improvement.

In performing these exercises, and all the exercises prescribed hereafter, let the pupil be strictly enjoined to offer no proposition that is not consistent with truth, and which does not express an appropriate thought-in other words, good sense. If this suggestion is duly regarded, the performance of these tasks will lead to the easy development and improvement of the rational powers of younger pupils; it will help them to acquire facility in that difficult and most valuable accomplishment-the correct and clear expression of their thoughts in writing, whilst they are pursuing, at the same time, what we believe to be the most effective and systematic course of training in the grammatical knowledge of their own language.

§ 16. (1) The use or purpose which a word (or a class of words) serves in discourse, that is, in forming propositions, we shall hereafter, for the sake of greater precision and brevity, call the FUNCTION of the word, or class of words. (2) Words are divided into several classes, in reference to the distinct functions which they perform. (3) These classes are commonly called "THE PARTS OF SPEECH.”

(4) In our survey of the essential parts of an assertive proposition in its most simple form, two of these classes of words (and these the two most important) have been brought under our view; namely, those which perform the function of subjects of propositions, and those which perform the double function of indicating assertion and expressing (in whole or in part) the predicate or thing asserted. (5) These two classes of words are essentially distinct, and never interchange functions with each other. The words which express subjects cannot be employed, at least in the same sense, to express

16. (1) What is meant by the function of a word? (2) On what principle, or in reference to what fact, are words classed by grammarians? (3) What are these classes of words usually called?

(4) Tell how many kinds, or classes of words are used in the most simple proposition, and the functions which they perform. (5) Can these classes of words exchange places!

assertion, nor those which express assertion to express the subjects of propositions. The learner will find no difficulty in distinguishing these two kinds of words when presented together. (6) There are, indeed, many words in our language which, having a double meaning, are employed for both purposes. (7) For example, cook, the name applied to the person who prepares food by fire, and cook, employed to assert the act of cooking, or preparing food by fire, as in the assertion, Men cook their food; work, the name applied to that which is the effect or result of working, and work, employed to assert the act of working, as, for instance, in the proposition, These honest men work faithfully. (8) The marked difference of function, and the position in the arrangement of the parts of the proposition, prevent all danger of being deceived by these signs of double meaning.

י

§ 17. [(1) The names subject, predicate, and copula, which we have used above to indicate the parts of propositions, refer properly to the things signified by the words employed to express these parts —not to the words, or signs themselves. (2) Sometimes, indeed, they are employed to indicate the word or sign, as well as that which it expresses. Or rather the terms subject and predicate are employed in an ambiguous manner to express both at once, neglecting the discrimination between the sign and the thing signified. Such employment of these terms naturally leads to confusion of thought. We require for the purposes of grammatical analysis such names for the classes of words, as shall indicate with precision that we intend to refer to the signs or words themselves, and not to the things signified by these words.]

(3) Grammarians have called that class of words which expresses the subjects of propositions, NOUNS-that is, NAMES. [(4) Noun (nom), is a term borrowed from the French language, in which it means simply name. The grammars of many languages

Answer. No; they "are essentially distinct," &c. (6) Do words the same, as to sound, Bometimes perform both functions? (7) Illustrate by examples. (8) What prevents the danger of being deceived by these signs of double meaning?

§ 17. [(1) To what do the names Subject, Predicate, and Copula properly refer? (2) Why are other names necessary for the classes of words which express the several parts of Propositions?]

(3) What name have grammarians given to the class of words which expresses the sub,ects of Propositions? [(4) Tell the origin and explain the meaning of the term NOUN)

indicate this class of words by the term which in those languages signifies name. It would perhaps conduce to perspicuity, if we also called this class of words by our own plain English term NAMES. But long usage has given a kind of prescriptive right to the term noun.] (5) Sometimes the Grammarians call them SUBSTANTIVE NOUNS, to distinguish them from another class of nouns, which is not used to express the subjects of propositions. We shall call them simply nouns, and sometimes substantives, employing these terms (perhaps improperly), like most of the Grammarians of the present day, as of equivalent meaning.

§ 18. (1) Those words which are used to express assertion, or to represent the copula and the predicate, in whole or in part, are called by the Grammarians VERBS. (2) VERB is a term derived, like most of our grammatical terms, from the Latin language, and means wORD. This name is intended to indicate that the kind of sign to which it is applied is pre-eminently THE WORD (a).

As verbs are employed always in assertive propositions only for the purpose of expressing the assertive part, we may in our analysis of propositions designate them simply by their name-verbs. But as nouns perform a variety of functions in the construction of propositions (3), whenever a noun is employed as subject, or leading part (nucleus) of the subject of a proposition, we shall call it the SUBJECT Noun, to distinguish it from nouns employed for other purposes. (4) In writing the analysis of a proposition, it will be convenient to express the word subject by the abbreviation or symbol S.; subject noun by the abbreviation S. N., verb by V., and predicate and copula, when we have occasion to use them in written exercises, by P. and C.

The pupil should now learn to point out the subject noun and the verb in the assertive propositions contained in any of the exercises given in the subsequent pages, or in his reading book. Let this exercise be continued with pupils beginning the study of grammar, till

NOTE (a). The old grammarians gave the name verb to this class of words, because the force and energy of every assertion-of all discourse-is contained in the assertive word. "Videlicet quod in VERBIS vim sermonis * * ****** esse judicaverunt."—Quintilian, I: 4: 18.

(5) By what other name are nouns sometimes called?

§ 18. (1) What name is given to the class of words which expresses assertion? (2) What does the term VERB mean, and what does it indicate in reference to the class of signs to which it has been applied by the ancient grammarians?