The rule to determine whether a word is to be classed among nouns may be given in the following brief form: (1) Every word which, alone and without any word implied, expresses what can be made the subject or leading part of the subject of a proposition or assertion, is a NOUN.*

EXERCISE.-Let the learner point out the nouns in the following passage, and show that the test given in the above rule applies to each of them :-

"Columbus was not ignorant of the mutinous disposition of his crew, but he still maintained a serene and steady countenance; soothing some with gentle words; endeavoring to stimulate the pride or avarice of others, and openly menacing the refractory with signal punishment, should they do any thing to impede the voyage."

MODEL OF EXAMINATION.-Point out the first noun in this passage. Ans. Columbus.-How do you ascertain that Columbus is a noun? Ans. From the fact that it expresses the subject of the proposition, "Columbus was not ignorant," &c.-Point out the next noun in the passage. Ans. "Disposition."-Why class this as a noun? Ans. Because it will serve to express the leading part of the subject, or, in other words, serves as subject noun, for example, in the following proposition, The disposition of his crew was mutinous. "Crew" is a noun; we can say, The crew was mutinous, &c. In the next proposition, He

nouns, is, to try whether they will make sense when united with a determinative or descriptive adjective-classes of words which we shall come to consider hereafter-in other words, to try whether they admit of being modified by these classes of words. This rule, besides the objection that it is indirect and mechanical, fails in regard of at least one large class of words now recognized by the best grammarians as nouns, viz., those words which have usually been called the infinitives of verbs; and it applies very clumsily to many proper names of persons, places, &c. It will exercise the rational powers of the learner to much better purpose to apply the test, Is this word the subject noun of the proposition which I am analyzing, or, if not, can i (stripped, if necessary, of case ending or inflexion) be made the subject nour. of some other proposition—that is, can any thing be asserted of it?

*The learner will find afterward that for some purposes nouns take cer tain inflexions, of which they must be stripped before they can serve as sub ject zouns. This fact will, in the end, present little difficulty, and it is unn cessary, at this point of our progress, to perplex the pupil by embracing it i. our rule.

§ 22 (1) Repeat the rule to determine whether a given word is a nouta

is a noun, according to our definition (and may be so called till the learner finds a special name for it), because it expresses the subject of the proposition, "He still maintained a serene and steady countenance." The word "his" in the preceding proposition may be passed over for the present, though, if an inflected form of he, it has claims to be classed as a noun.

§ 23. CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS.-Some knowledge of the classification of nouns is necessary in order to comprehend certain modifications, of which they are susceptible, by a change of form, or by the addition of other words, to fit them to express the various subjects of human thought. But it may be useful, thus early, to dwell longer on the classification of nouns, than would be absolutely necessary for the purpose mentioned, because, next to a careful application of the test already given, a review of the several kinds of nouns will, more than any thing else, assist the young learner in distinguishing readily this important class of words. Besides, it is requisite for other reasons connected with our method of treating grammar to give in this place more extended notice to some of the classes which we shall designate.

§ 24. FIRST CLASS: CONCRETE NOUNS, OR NAMES OF SUBSTANCES.—(1) The names of substances, material and immaterial, constitute the most prominent class of nouns. (2) We use the word substance here in the philosophical sense to indicate what subsists by itself what has, or is conceived to have, an independent existence. (3) This class includes the names of all persons, animals, places, of all the objects around us in the universe, whether formed by our Creator, or by the skill, industry, and contrivance of man-in a word, every thing which appears to our senses as a separate independent object of contemplation, or which is conceived by the mind as such, as God, angels, souls of men, &c. (4) These are called concrete nouns, or names of substances.

EXERCISE I.-Let the pupil point out the concrete nouns, or names of substances in the following extract:

"On the right, amid a profusion of thickets, knolls, and crags, lay the bed of a broad mountain lake, lightly curled into tiny waves by the breath of the morning breeze, each glittering in its course under

$ 24. (1) What words constitute the most prominent class of nouns? (2) In what sense is the word substance here used, and what does it mean or indicate? (3) Enumerate some of the kinds of names which belong to this class. (4) What is the name given to this class of nouns?

the influence of the sunbeams. High hills, rocks, and banks waving with natural forests of birch and oak, formed the borders of this enchanting sheet of water; and, as their leaves rustled in the wind, and twinkled in the sun, gave to the depth of solitude a sort of life and vivacity."

EXERCISE II.-Let the pupil write a given number of examples of concrete nouns. This exercise, in the case of young pupils, may, with advantage, be often repeated. Each time it may be prescribed to give a number of examples from one subdivision of these names. 1st, names of persons; 2d, names of animals; 3d, names of places; 4th, names of things of natural production, as minerals, plants, &c.; 5th, names of things of artificial production; 6th, names of spiritual, or immaterial substances.

§ 25. COLLECTIVE NOUNS.-What are called collective nouns may be regarded (1) as a peculiar subdivision of the names of substances. (2) The collectives claim our notice, because some of them are occasionally so employed as to give rise to certain peculiarities of construction, as we shall find hereafter; (§ 56, rule II.) (3) They are called collectives, because they express an assemblage of objects contemplated by the mind as forming a single conception, and capable of being embraced collectively under the same assertion. The individual objects which form such assemblages are contemplated as united together by some common bond, or for some common purpose, and we appropriate to them, as thus united, a collective name. (4) We have examples in the words, army, meaning an organized collection of soldiers; navy, a collection of ships and seamen; society, party, parliament, congress, council, mob, group, crowd, horde, host, &c.

EXERCISE.-Let the pupil give a written list of collective nouns.

§ 26. (1) SECOND CLASS: ABSTRACT NOUNS.-The names given to qualities, properties, or attributes, ABSTRACTLY considered; that is, considered separately from the substances, or objects in which they are found, constitute a second class of nouns very distinct from the former. (2) Some of these qualities, or properties, are perceived by the

§ 25. (1) How may collective nouns be regarded ? (2) Why does this subdivision of nouns claim a share of our notice? (3) Why are these nouns called collectives? (4) Giva examples of collective nouns.

26. (1) What words constitute the second class of nouns? (2) Recite the illustra

senses, as, for example, the properties of external bodies-hardness, softness, the various colors, &c. Others are made known to us by the help of an intellectual process, as, for example, the various properties or attributes of human minds-emotions, passions, feelings, affections, virtues, vices, &c. These attributes or properties, whether of matter or of mind, have obviously no independent existence. They all subsist only in connection with substances, and, apart from these, they have no real being. (3) But we often find it convenient to contemplate these properties separately, or abstracted from the substances in which they exist, and to discourse of them as thus viewed. Hence we give them names, and express our thoughts of them in propositions, in the same manner as we do of substances. (4) To distinguish this class of names from the names of substances, they are commonly called ABSTRACT NOUNS. Or they may be called NAMES OF ATTRIBUTES; that is, of those qualities or properties which we attribute to substances.

EXERCISE I.-Point out the nouns in t..e following sentences, and distinguish the abstract names from the names of substances:—

"Whatever promotes and strengthens virtue, whatever calms and regulates the temper, is a source of happiness. Devotion produces these effects in a remarkable degree. It inspires composure of spirit, mildness and benignity; weakens the painful, and cherishes the pleasing emotions; and, by these means, carries on the life of a pious man in a smooth and placid tenor

The pupil will call "whatever" a noun, since it expresses the subject of several propositions in the beginning of this passage, but he need not give himself any trouble for the present to determine to what class of nouns it belongs.

EXERCISES II. III., &c.-Write out a given number of abstract nouns. 1st. Names of sensible or external attributes. 2d. Names of spiritual or mental attributes, or such as are perceived by the help of an intellectual process.

§ 27. (1) VERBAL NOUNS.-What are called verbal nouns may be considered as a peculiar subdivision of abstract nouns, or names

tions and examples given above and suggest others. (8) Account for the formation of this class of nouns. (4) By what names are they called?

$ 27. (1) How may verbal nouns be considered?

of attributes subjectively employed.* (2) These are called verbals, because they express substantively, or subjectively, that which is expressed assertively by their kindred verbs.

The name verbal seems intended to imply that these nouns are derived from verbs. But, on the contrary, verbs themselves may, with more propriety, be considered as these (so called) verbal nouns with an assumed assertive form. "A verb is a noun and something more." It is a noun with an indication of assertion superadded. This indication is usually expressed by the form of the verb in most languages; but in English for want of verbal terminations, or, rather, through disuse of those formerly employed, we are often left to determine from the construction whether a word is assertively used or not-that is, whether it is a verb or not. It is easy, however, to distinguish the verbal nouns we are now considering from the verb. The one is generally marked by its prefixed particle to, and when this is omitted, as after certain verbs (chiefly those called auxiliary), its relation to these verbs prevents all mistake; the other verbal is distinguished by its invariable termination ing from the verb, though not from the verbal adjective or participle.

(3) We have in the English language two of these verbals for every verb, with the exception of four or five very peculiar verbs of the class called auxiliary verbs-may, can, shall, must. These and will in its auxiliary sense have no correspondent verbals.

(4) One of these verbals consists of what is called the root, or radical form of the verb, generally, with the particle to prefixed. The other consists of the radical form with the termination ing affixed. For example, from the root read we have the two verbals, to read and reading; from print, to print and printing. (5) When

*That is, if being and acting are to be admitted among properties or attributes of things substantial. If not, the verbals are entitled to be admitted as a separate class. But whether we regard them as a subdivision of abstract nouns, or as a distinct class, they claim the particular attention of the learner on account of the peculiar modes of expression and forms of construction which arise from their use in language.

(2) Why is this class of words called verbals?

(8) How many verbal nouns are connected with each verb? (4) Describe these ver bals and give examples. (5) Notice the exception in forming the written verbal in ing.