objective "counsel" is accompanied by the modifying words "of the heart."

(14) As in the case of the noun complementary of the active verb, so in the case of an adjective used after an active verb, the infinitive TO BE seems often to be implied in the construction. (15) Thus, We thought him wISE. We considered him PRUDENT. They found him INCAPABLE, or IGNORANT, or FOOLISH, or HONEST, &c. (16) These expressions may be considered, and may be treated in analysis, as abbreviated for, We thought him TO BE wise, &c. And then the pronoun him with the verb TO BE, having wise for its complementary adjective, will be noun and infinitive contracted accessory complementary of the verbs, to think, &c. (See § 142: 28.)

(17) As in the case of the noun complementary of the active verb, these adjectives complementary of the active verb are retained when the passive form of expression is employed. (18) They may then be called adjectives complementary of the passive verb. (19) Thus, The Athenians called Aristides JUST, becomes in the passive form, Aristides was called JUST by the Athenians. (20) The remarks made already in regard to the noun complementary employed with passive verbs, will apply, without much change, to the adjective thus employed. (See § 78.)*

It will be proper to bring all these kindred forms of the noun and the adjective complementary together, that their close similarity of character may be exhibited more clearly to the learner. The arrangement of these complements, which we are about to present, will also serve the purpose of fixing them more strongly in the memory of the young grammarian. (21) We have, then, The noun complementary of

*There is a manner of employing adjectives after verbs, especially prevalent in poetry, which perhaps has originated in an insensible extension of the construction we are now considering; and which we may call for the sake of distinction, the adjective adverbially employed. This use (or abuse) of adjectives we shall be able to explain with less trouble after we have considered the adverbs. We also reserve, till we come to the adverbs, the remarks which we have to make on the distinction between adjectives and adverbs.

(14) What word seems to be. often implied in these constructions? (15) Illustrate by examples. (16) How may the expressions given as examples be treated in analysis?

(17) What happens when the passive form of expressing such assertions is used? . (18) How may the adjective be called, when the passive form is used? (19) Illustrate by examples. (20) What remarks apply in this case?

(21) Enumerate the various species of the noun complementary and of the adjective complementary, and give an example of each from the table.

the NEUTER verb, the noun complementary of the ACTIVE verb, and the noun complementary of the PASSIVE verb. We have, in like manner, the adjective complementary of the neuter verb, the adjective complementary of the active verb, and the adjective complementary of the passive verb. We exhibit these symmetrically in the following table, with an example of each form of complement annexed:

Noun Complementary.

Neut. V. The boy becomes a man.

Act. V. "Thou hast made thy servant king." Pass, V. "The Word was made flesh."

Adjective Complementary. The boy becomes manly. "They made the king glad." "The simple is made wise."

§ 90. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THESE FORMS OF MODIFICATION. These forms of modification have been, as we have already observed, first treated with that attention which their importance demands by the German grammarians. We exclude, of course, from this assertion the particular case of adjectives used with the verb TO BE, since much has been said of the construction of this verb with adjectives by grammarians and logicians in all ages. But from the view commonly taken of this construction, we have felt obliged by our convictions to record our dissent; the reasons for this dissent we have stated fully in another place. (See § 46, and note.) The Germans, too, so far as we know, have treated the adjectives after the verb to be, like all other grammarians, as forming the predicate of the propositions in which they are found, and the verb itself as being the simple copula, including no part of the predicate. But all these constructions exhibited in the above table, viz., the noun and the adjective complementary with all neuter verbs, except the verb to be, and the noun and the adjective with active and with passive verbs, the German grammarians have called the construction of the FACTITIVE OBJECT, dividing this factitive object, into the factitive noun, the factitive infinitive, the factitive adjective, and the factitive noun and preposition. This last we have not thought it necessary to notice, or to distinguish among the noun and preposition complements, as in form it differs nothing from the others. It is only distinguished by the meaning which it conveys a distinction, as the logicians would call it, of matter not of form, and therefore not essential to language. We have an example of what the Germans mean by the factitive object expressed by a noun and a preposition in the assertion, water was changed INTO WINE. Here "into wine" expresses the factitive object-that into which the water was changed.

The name FAOTITIVE OBJECT has been given to this species of com

piements by the German grammarians from the circumstance that they often express that which in the neuter and passive construction the subject is represented to be made or constituted, and in the active construction, that which the passive object is represented to be made or constituted, or represented to be thought or imagined to be made or constituted. The name seems to have been adopted from regarding as peculiarly conspicuous, among such constructions, examples like those given above, formed with the verb MAKE. To us the name appears to be not sufficiently comprehensive to embrace all the constructions which the Germans themselves have classed under it. This objection becomes still stronger when we bring into the same class of constructions (as we have done) the nouns and the very numerous adjectives which complete the verb to be. We regard the nouns and adjectives attached to the verb to be, as performing precisely the same kind of function, which nouns and adjectives attached to other neuter verbs perform. We cannot, therefore, consistently with these views follow the German grammarians in the employment of the name factitive object, as applicable to this whole class of complements. First, this term is not sufficiently comprehensive; and to use it might, on this account, only mislead the student. He might suppose that the term expresses a leading peculiarity common to this whole class of constructions-the factitive object implying some effect produced-in which he would find himself mistaken. Secondly, the term refers not to the form of language, but to the matter expressed. Now all grammatical divisions and terms should, as far as possible, refer to the proper subject of grammar, viz.: the form of expression, and not to the matter expressed. We do not deny that the grammarian may often profitably have recourse in his inquiries to the matter of expression-to thought. But his classifications and terms ought to have their foundation as much as possible in the peculiar properties of language—that is, in the peculiar properties of the form of expression. We have not been able to find a term that suits us to replace the German term. Such a term we want, as will adequately express the common properties, or some leading common property, of this whole class of complements. Till such term can be found, the kindred nature of these modifications may be indicated by the term complementary, common to the names which we have given to them severally, and which we have purposely confined exclusively to this particular class.

We may remark here the difficulties which grammarians have to encounter (experto credite), who have unthinkingly admitted that the distinction between adjectives and adverbs is, that adjectives modify or quaiify nouns,

The

and adverbs, on the contrary, modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They may call the adjective after the verb to be, the predicate, and say (without being able to allege a good reason, and in contradiction to all seeming likelihood) that a noun is always implied with such adjectives; that, for example, in the proposition, The man is virtuous, the noun man is implied in the predicate The mar is a virtuous MAN. This supposition appears to us wholly gratuitous, implying the actual existence at a remote period of an awkward form of expression in all languages, which we could not, perhaps, satisfactorily prove to have ever had customary place, at any period, in any language. Still, this manner of treating the adjective after the verb to be is incomparably better than to confound it, as some loose thinkers (perhaps we should not call them grammarians) have done, with the ordinary adjective modification, and make it agree with and belong to the subject noun. same persons treat the adjective complementary of the active verb as a mere modifying adjective attached to the objective noun. According to the grammatical teachings of such persons, we could establish no distinction in analysis between propositions so diverse as, We call the boy GOOD, and We call the good boy. But, to return to the more consistent grammarians and logicians, who, to establish the assertion that adjectives never complete verbs, hold that a noun is always implied with every adjective in forming the predicate in propositions made with the verb to be, what will they say of the adjective in such examples as, Honey tastes SWEET, The weather feels COLD, The fields look GREEN? What noun can be supplied in these and in numerous similar examples? The fact appears to us incontestable-though a fact too long and too generally overlooked by grammarians-that adjectives are very cxtensively employed in all languages to complete verbs, and, consequently, that the true distinction between them and adverbs is to be sought in something else, than the untenable assumption that adjectives modify nouns and adverbs modify verbs, &c. How much confusion and waste of thought has been occasioned by yielding inconsiderately to the authority of the commonly received definitions of these two classes of modifying words!

We might, indeed, with more consistency assert that adjectives modify nouns exclusively; since we hold that the predicate included in every verb is a noun, and that it is the predicate—the noun part of the verb-not the copula or assertive force that is completed by the complementary adjective, as well as by every other form of modification. It may then be asked, Why not say at once, in accordance with our views, that the complementary adjective here, as elsewhere, modifies a noun-namely, the noun expressive of the predicate contained in the verb? We answer, because it would serve no useful purpose, and might mislead the learner. The only purpose which it could be expected to serve would be that of simplification; and this purpose, in our opinion, it could not serve, since, as will be seen from all that we have said, we look on the adjective thus employed as performing a function in reference to the predicate entirely different from

that which it performs as the descriptive modification of an ordinary noun (To retain a distinction where there is no difference is unphilosophical, and often leads to important errors. But to get rid of a distinction where there is a real difference is equally unphilosophical, and equally calculated to misLead.) We should, therefore, be obliged to resort to some means of discrimi nating between this species of modification and the ordinary descriptive adjective modification; and none is more convenient than that presented to us by the usual distinction of the classes of words to which they are applied. The descriptive adjective modification, to ordinary nouns, the adjective complementary to verbs and to verbal words. It must not, however, be forgotten that it is not as verbs (in the sense in which we use this term), that is, as assertive words, that verbs are susceptible of this species of modification, but · in consequence of the nature of the matter which they express, altogether independent of the fact that it is expressed in the assertive form. Hence, like other modifications applicable to verbs, these are applicable to verbal nouns, and verbal adjectives. We say, for example, To make a man glad, and making glad, as well as, makes glad, &c.

The difference between the descriptive adjective modification and the complementary adjective modification, may, perhaps, be briefly stated thus. The descriptive adjective modification expresses a quality or property contemplated, as inherent in the object expressed by the noun to which it is applied; the complementary adjective does not express a quality inherent in the conception expressed by the verb or predicate which it completes. On the contrary, when used with a neuter verb, it expresses an attribute asserted to pertain to the subject in the mode signified by the predicate in the neuter verb; and when used with an active verb, it expresses an attribute asserted to become the property of the passive object, in the mode or manner signified by the predicate contained in the active verb. To illustrate our meaning by examples: The weather is cold, The weather grows cold, The weather feels cold. Here the attribute cold is asserted to pertain to the weather, in the first proposition in the mode or manner expressed by being; in the second in the mode expressed by growing; and in the third in the mode expressed by feeling. Again, A wise son makes his father's heart GLAD; The world calls the successful GREAT. Here the quality expressed by glad is asserted to become the property of a father's heart in the mode signified by making, and the quality great is asserted to become the property of the successful in the mode signified by calling.

We have now finished what we have to say at present of the descriptive adjectives. We reserve what we have to say of the modifications which adjectives undergo, whether effected by inflexion or by the use of other words till we have considered the adverbs.