contrary, are only the representatives of nouns, not the direct signs of things. (6) As the same pronoun may be used to represent an unlimited number of nouns, that is, the names of an unlimited variety of things, the pronouns are not associated in the memory, by the use of language, with any objects or classes of objects exclusively, but are used to represent the names, now of one, now of another object, or class of objects. (7) Thus every man employs the pronoun I to represent his own name-to indicate himself, when he has occasion to express any assertion of which he is the subject. We use thou or you to represent any individual whom we address. Thus I is employed to represent the unlimited number of individuals who may have occasion to speak of themselves; and thou or you to represent the unlimited number of persons, to whom others may have occasion to address any assertion having the person or persons addressed for its subject. He, again, represents the names of all beings in the universe recognised as males, when (not addressed, but) spoken of individually to others; she the names of all the females; and it all objects that are not recognised as either male or female. So that these three little words, he, she, it, together, represent the names of all persons and things in the universe singly or individually considered; and the single pronoun they represents them all, when assertions are to be made in regard to a number of them taken together.

(8) It follows from this account of the functions of pronouns, that the mind must always refer back from the pronoun which represents the person spoken of, to the noun which it represents, in order to know what is intended to be designated. (9) When language is skilfully employed, this reference can always be readily made by proper attention to the connection and arrangement of the words in discourse, and to the recognised usages of speech. (10) If on any occasion we cannot determine to what particular noun a pronoun has reference, we fail completely of catching the meaning of the speaker or writer.

tives? (6) What farther is said of the pronouns? (7) Illustrate; and tell what the pronouns I, thou or you, he, she, it, and they, may severally represent. Divide the ques tion. What does I represent? &c.

(8) How do we ascertain what is designated by a pronoun? (9) In what case is the reference of a pronoun readily made, and how is it made? (10) If we fail altogether in dis

(11) If we cannot determine this reference with certainty and with promptitude, we complain justly of obscurity. Our mind, in this case, is diverted from the subject matter of the discourse to the irksome occupation of unravelling the perplexities of the construction-a result fatal to the success of either orator or author, except his matter is possessed of more than common interest, and the hearer or reader possessed of more than common patience. Even then, such obscurity occasions annoyance and waste of time, and sometimes greatly diminishes the effect of sound argument and profound research. (12) Let us here add, that there is nothing in which inexperienced writers more frequently fail, than in securing by a lucid arrangement the certain and easy reference of pronouns of the third person, as they are called, to the nouns which they are intended to represent. (13) If a writer wishes to be easily and clearly understood, let him take care never to employ a pronoun in such a way, that an intelligent reader can hesitate to decide to what it refers. (14) It is particularly in the use of the pronouns, he, she, it, and they, that this precaution is necessary. The other pronouns can scarcely be so employed as to occasion obscurity.]

NOTE.-Much of what is said about the pronouns seems to apply more strictly to what are called the pronouns of the third person-he, she, it, and they-than to those of the first and second persons, those which represent the speaker and the party addressed, I, we, thou, you. It may even be questioned whether the name pronoun (representative of noun) can with strict propriety be given to these last. They can scarcely be said either to stand for nouns or to refer to nouns. They are signs as directly indicating the parties engaged in discourse, as the names of these parties would be: they indicate them more clearly, more explicitly, than their proper names in the circumstances would do. There is no need of a reference to the names of the parties in order to understand who is designated. Nay, the names may be unknown, and yet no want of perspicuity be occasioned; as when persons enter into conversation on the road, who do not know each

Dovering the reference of a pronoun, what is the consequence? (11) What is the conse quence if we cannot discover it promptly? (12) In what is it alleged that inexperienced writers often fail? (13) Mention the precaution to be observed by a writer, that he may be easily and clearly understood. (14) In reference to what pronouns is this precaution particularly required ?]

other's names, nor perhaps wish to know them, or when the author or orator addresses unknown readers or hearers, or, as often happens in our periodicals, when the name of the author and the names of those whom he addresses are mutually unknown. There is then a marked distinction in some respects between these two classes of pronouns-those of the first and second persons, as they are called, and those of the third person. But in this they agree, and in this they are both unlike nouns, that they are not appropriated exclusively to express one object or one class of objects. The pronouns of the first and second persons are made to designate all persons who are for the time speakers or parties addressed, as those of the third designate all persons and things spoken of, exclusive of the speaker and the party addressed. Those of the first and second persons especially, besides expressing the subject, indicate the part which the subject performs in the discourse-a service which could not be performed so readily by the use of the nouns which these pronouns are said to represent; but which they certainly do more than merely represent.

(15) The pronouns employed as subject nouns of propositions, are of two distinct classes, called personal pronouns, and relative pronouns. Some grammarians have given to this latter class the more appropriate because more characteristic name of conjunctive pronouns. We confine our attention for the present to the personal pror.cuns. The conjunctive pronouns will come under our notice in a more suitable place, when we shall have occasion to show their use in the construction of compound propositions.

29. THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.-(1) This class of pronouns is called personal because, besides performing the functions of nouns in the subjects of propositions, they indicate the PERSON or part which what they represent sustains in discourse.*

*The ancient grammarians seem to have borrowed the term per son from the language of the stage, in which the players were called the dramatis personæ, persons of the drama. (Originally persona meant the mask through which the actor spoke, afterwards it was employed also as a name for a player, for him who wore the mask and sustained the character of a party in the drama.) Among the actors a first, second, &c., persona,

(15) How many kinds of pronouns are employed as subjects, and by what names are they called?

§ 29. (1) Why are the personal pronouns called by this name?

(2) These performers enacting distinct parts in discourse are, first, the speaker—in his own name alone, or in his own name, and that of others for whom he undertakes to speak-who is called the FIRST PERSON, as sustaining the first, or chief part in discourse ; second, the party (or parties when more than one) addressed, called the SECOND PERSON, as sustaining the second part, or part of hearers in discourse; and, third, the party, or parties spoken of in discourse, when distinct from the speaker and the party addressed, called the THIRD PERSON. [(3) Under the first and second persons are included only what are called persons in the common modern sense of the word person, or what, for the time, are conceived as performing the functions of persons, that is, the functions of rational beings using or at least understanding speech; that is, such as alone can sustain a part in discourse. (4) When we speak to animals, they are recog nised as sustaining the part of a second person, as listening to human discourse, and are, in such cases, addressed by the pronoun of the second person; as, "Sing'st thou, sweet Philomel, to me?" (5) The same happens in the use of the figure called personification, when we conceive, or represent insensible objects, as if they possessed reason, and could listen to our discourse. Sometimes such mute objects are represented as performing the part of speaker cr first person. (6) Under the third person the grammarians comprehend every class of beings that can become the subject of thought--both persons (properly so called) and things.]

The extension of the term person, in treating of the pronouns of the third person, so as to comprehend beings which not only are not by common usage called persons, but excluded from the class of persons, has led to an ambiguous and inconsistent employment of this word by the grammarians. In speaking of nouns, and especially of the personal pronouns, we are told that all animals and things, as well as per

person or actor, was recognised; and this fact also seems to have been present to the thoughts of the grammarian who first adopted the terms first person, second person, third person, in treating of these pronouns.

:

(2) What is the part sustained in discourse by what is called in grammar the FIRST PERSON? What by the SECOND PERSON? What by the THIRD PERSON? [(3) What class of beings alone is generally included under the first and second persons? (4) Mention an exception. (5) Mention a second apparent exception. (6) What classes of beings are comprehended under the third person?]

sons, are of the third person, when merely spoken of; manifestly including animals and things in the class of persons, as comprehended with them under the third person. Again, when it becomes necessary to distinguish the conjunctive pronouns, who and which, we are told that who applies to persons, and which to animals or inanimate things, manifestly excluding animals and inanimate things (in accordance with the commonly received usage of the term) from the class of persons. In these two cases the word person is employed in two senses not only different, but strikingly inconsistent. We cannot free ourselves effectually from this inconsistent employment of the term person, without a considerable change in the language employed in treating of the persons of nouns, pronouns, and verbs; or, in other words, of the parts which subjects sustain in discourse. A reformed nomenclature is perhaps needed in this, as in some other departments of grammar. Let us, in the mean time, mark and admit the extension beyond its usual and proper sense given to the term person, when we speak of the third person of nouns or pronouns, and guard against any confusion of thought which might arise from the ambiguous or inconsistent employment of this term.

§ 30. (1) The first person, or speaker (when the subject of a proposition) is expressed by the pronoun I; or, if he speaks in the name of others, as well as in his own name, by the pronoun wE. I serves instead of the speaker's own proper name, and we instead of the speaker's name and the names of those whom he represents. (2) The second person, or the party addressed (when the subject of a proposition), is represented by the pronoun THOU, or You, if a single individual; if a number of individuals, by You, or YE. (3) THOU, except in addresses to the Deity, and in the solemn style, is almost out of use in the English of the present day. The same may be said of YE. (4) The form you has come to be universally employed in ordinary discourse, both in addressing an individual and ■ number of persons, except among the Friends. (5) The pronoun of the THIRD PERSON (or party spoken of, exclusive of speaker and hearers), representing a single individual, has three distinct forms, according as the party spoken of is recognised as being of the male

§ 30. (1) What pronoun represents the speaker as subject of a proposition? What pronoun is used when the speaker speaks for others with himself? (2) What are the pronouns of the second person? (3) What is said of the use of THOU? (4) What of the employ. inent of You? (5) What is said of the pronoun of the third person?